
Class_SEL54:5: 

Book_j:p'^^ ■ 



CDE^RIGHT DEPOSm 



A TEXT-BOOK 



OF THE 



DISEASES OF THE SMALL 
DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



BY 

OSCAR VICTOR BRUMLEY, V.S. 

PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY SURGERY AND DIRECTOR OF CLINICS, COLLEGE 

OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, 

COLUMBUS, OHIO 




LEA & P^EBIGER 

PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK 
1921 






Copyright 

LEA & FEBIGER 

1921 



OCT -3 '2 i 



PRINTED IN U. S. A. 



g)C!.A627223 



^IVT 



5 



PREFACE 



This book is intended to be a practical text on the Diseases 
of the Small Domestic Animals. The author feels that it is 
inadvisable to write an exhaustive treatise on this subject, 
as it is primarily intended to be a book for student use and for 
the busy practitioner. An attempt has been made to include 
most of the important diseases (medical and surgical) of 
small animals with which the veterinarian comes in contact. 
It is hoped that it will serve the purpose for which it is written. 

The author does not claim originality for all the material 
in the book. The literature and standard books have been 
consulted freely. 

For scientific reasons the metric system has been used 
throughout the text. A table of equivalents in weights and 
measures has been inserted so that the dosage can be readily 
determined in the other system, if desired. This was thought 
to be more desirable than including both under the treatment 
of each disease. 

The author wishes to express his appreciation for the 
valued assistance rendered by his colleagues in the College 
of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, in the 
preparation of the manuscript. He is especially indebted 
to Colonel David S. White, Dean, for his kindness in arrang- 
ing and correcting the manuscript, and for his advice relative 
to the subject matter, and in many other ways contributing 
to the value of the book. Also to Dr. James Howard Snook 



IV PREFACE 

for suggestions in the chapter on skin diseases and various 
other problems as they presented themselves. The author's 
thanks are extended to Dr. John Newton Shoemaker and 
others who have been liberal with their assistance during the 
preparation of the manuscript. 

O. V. B. 

Columbus, Ohio, 1921. 



CONTENTS. 

PARTI. 
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 

CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of the Nasal Passages. 

Examination 17 

Acute Nasal Catarrh (Cor3^za. Rhinitis) 19 

Empyema of the Infraorbital Fossse of Birds 20 

Infectious Nasal Catarrh of Rabbits (Rabbit Plague. Rabbit 

Influenza. Rabbit Distemper) 20 

Parasitic Nasal Catarrh of Rabbits (Rhinitis Coccidiosa) ... 22 

Chronic Nasal Catarrh (Chronic Coryza. Rhinitis) .... 23 

Epistaxis .... 24 

Parasites of the Nasal Passages 25 

Neoplasms of the Nasal Passages 28 

Papillomata 28 

Polypoid Fibromata • 28 

MaHgnant Tumors 29 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of the Larynx. 

Acute LarjTigitis 30 

Chronic Laryngitis 31 

CHAPTER III. 

Diseases of the Trachea and Bronchial Tubes. 

Examination 34 

Acute Tracheitis and Bronchitis 34 

Bronchial Catarrh of Birds (Bronchitis) 38 

Mycotic Pneumonia (Aspergillosis) 40 

Animal Parasites in the Trachea and Bronchial Tubes (Syngamosis. 

Gapes in Chickens) 42 

Chronic Tracheitis and Bronchitis 44 



vi CONTENTS 

CHAPTER IV. 

Diseases of the Lungs. 

Examination 47 

Congestion of the Lungs (H5T)eremia of the Lungs) .... 49 

Active Congestion 49 

Passive Congestion 50 

Puhnonary Edema (Edema of the Lungs) 52 

Bronchopneumonia (Catarrhal Pneumonia) 53 

Cirrhosis of the Lungs (Chronic Literstitial Pneumonia) ... 57 

Foreign Body Pneumonia (Gangrene of the Lungs) .... 58 

CHAPTER v. 

Diseases of the Pleura. 

Pleuritis (Pleurisy) 60 

Hydrothorax 65 

Pneumothorax 66 

Hemothorax 67 



PART II. 
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 

CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of the Pericardium. 

Examination 69 

Pericarditis 73 

Hydropericardium (Dropsy of the Pericardium) 76 

Hemopericardium . 77 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of the Heart. 

Valvular Insufficiency and Stenosis 78 

Myocarditis 82 

Acute Myocarditis 82 

Chronic ^Myocarditis 84 

Acute Endocarditis . . . 85 

Hypertrophy and Dilatation of the Heart 89 

Rupture of the Heart 92 



CONTENTS vii 

PART III. 
DISEASES' OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT. 

CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of the Mouth. 

Examination 93 

Stomatitis . . . . 94 

Catarrhal Stomatitis 94 

Ulcerative Stomatitis 96 

Gangrenous Stomatitis (Canker of the Mouth) .... 97 

Phlegmonous Stomatitis 99 

Parasitic Sto natitis (Thrush. Soor. Aphtha) .... 100 

Benign Neoplasms of the Mouth 102 

Papillomata 102 

Fibromata ^ 102 

Osteoma-. 103 

Retention Cysts (Ranula) 103 

Mahgnant Neoplasms of the Mouth 104 

EpitheHomata 104 

Sarcomata 105 

Foreign Bodies in the Mouth 106 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of the Teeth. 

Examination 107 

MaKormations of the Teeth 107 

Fractures of the Teeth 108 

Incrustations of Tartar 108 

Alveolar Periostitis (Pericementitis. Periodontitis) .... 108 

Caries of the Teeth 109 

CHAPTER III. 

Diseases of the Tongue. 

Examination Ill 

Glossitis Ill 

Gangrene of the Tongue (Gangrenous Glossitis) ..... 1 12 



viii CONTENTS 



CHAPTER IV. 

Diseases of the Salivary Glands. 

Examination 115 

Parotitis (Mumps) 115 

Submaxillary and Sublingual Glands 118 

Salivary Fistula 118 

CHAPTER V. 

Diseases of the Tonsils. 

Examination . . . 120 

Tonsillitis and Lymphadenitis . " 120 

CHAPTER VI. . 

Diseases of the Pharynx. 

Examination . 123 

Pharyngitis .... 123 

Acute Pharyngitis 123 

Chronic Pharyngitis 125 

Foreign Bodies in the Pharynx . 126 

Paralysis of the Pharjux . 127 

Croupous Pharyngitis of Birds 127 

Neoplasms of the Pharynx 128 

Polypoid Growths 128 

Epithehoma . 129 

CHAPTER VII. 

Diseases of the Esophagus. 

Examination 130 

Esophagitis 130 

Foreign Bodies (Obstruction in Esophagus) 131 

Esophagismus . 135 

Stricture of the Esophagus 135 

Dilatations and Diverticula of the Esophagus 136 

Catarrh of the Crop in Birds (Soft Crop) 137 

Obstruction of the Crop in Birds (Hard Crop) 139 

Neoplasms of the Esophagus 141 



CONTENTS IX 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Diseases of the Stomach. 

Examination 142 

Gastritis 142 

Acute Gastritis (Simple Catarrh of the Stomach. Acute 

Dyspepsia) 142 

Chronic Gastritis (Chronic Catarrh of the Stomach. Chronic 

Dyspepsia) 146 

Foreign Bodies in the Stomach 148 

Acute Dilatation of the Stomach 152 

Chronic Dilatation of the Stomach 154 

Ulceration of the Stomach (Ulcus Ventriculi) 157 

Hematemesis • 160 

Parasites in the Stomach 163 

Neoplasms in the Stomach 165 

CHAPTER IX. 

Diseases op the Intestines. 

Examination 167 

Enteritis 167 

Acute Enteritis 167 

Chronic Enteritis 173 

Intestinal Hemorrhage (Enterorrhagia) 175 

Diarrhea 178 

Constipation (Obstipation. Intestinal Obstruction) . . . . 182 

Volvulus 185 

Intussusception 186 

Wounds of the Intestines 188 

Croupous Enteritis of Cats (Membranous Enteritis) .... 190 

Infectious Asthenia of Birds 191 

CHAPTER X. 

Par,asites in the Intestines. 

Helminthiasis 193 

Tajniasis (Cestoda) 193 

Taenia3 in Dogs 195 

Tsenias in the Intestine of the Cat 197 

Taenia) in the Intestine of Ral)l)its 197 

Taenia) in the Intestines of Birds 198 



X CONTENTS 

Nematoda 201 

Round worms (Ascaridae) 201 

Round Worms in the Intestine of the Dog .... 202 

Round Worms in the Intestine of the Cat .... 202 

Round Worms in the Intestine of the Rabbit . . . 202 

Round Worms in the Intestine of Birds 202 

Strongylidae (Hookworm) 206 

Strongylidse in the Intestine of the Dog 207 

StrongyUdae in the Intestine of the Cat 207 

Strongyhdse in the Intestine of the Rabbit .... 207 

Trichinellidse (Whipworm) ^ . . . . 209 

TrichinelHdse in the Intestine of the Dog 210 

Trichinelhdse in the Intestine of the Rabbit . . . .210 

Trichinelhdse in the Intestine of Birds 210 

CHAPTER XI. 

Diseases of the Rectum and Anus. 

Examination 212 

Occlusion of the Rectum and Anus .212 

Proctitis 214 

Hemorrhoids (Piles) 216 

Prolapse of the Rectum 217 

Parasites in the Rectum . . . . . . 221 

Neoplasms in the Rectum . 222 

Suppuration of the Anal Glands 223 

CHAPTER XII. 

Diseases of the Liver. 

Examination 225 

Icterus (Jaundice) 225 

Congestion of the Liver 231 

Active Congestion 231 

Passive Congestion 233 

Hepatitis 235 

Suppurative Hepatitis (Abscess of the Liver) . . . . . 236 

Atrophy of the Liver 240 

Fatty Liver 241 

Amyloid Liver . 242 

Cirrhosis of the Liver (Chronic Interstitial Hepatitis) . . . . 243 

Neoplasms of the Liver 244 

Cholelithiasis. GaU-stones 245 

Rupture of the Liver (Ruptura Hepatis. Apoplexia Hepatis) . 246 



CONTENTS XI 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Diseases of the Peritoneum 

General Remarks 248 

Peritonitis . . . . ^ 250 

Acute Peritonitis . . . . . 250 

Chronic Peritonitis 255 

Ascites (Hydrops Abdominis. Hydrops Ascites. Hydrops 

Peritonei) 257 



PART IV. 
DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. 

CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of the Penis and Prepuce. 

Examination 263 

Wounds of the Penis and Prepuce 263 

Congenital Malformations 265 

Preputial Catarrh (Balanitis) 265 

Phimosis 266 

Paraphimosis 267 

Tumors of the Penis and Prepuce 268 

Papillomata 269 

Sarcomata, Epitheliomata and Carcinomata 269 

Venereal Granulomata , 269 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of the Testes and Scrotum. 

Wounds and Injuries of the Testes and Scrotum 271 

Orchitis 271 

Tumors of the Scrotum and Testes 272 

Parasites in the Scrotum and Testes (Cuterebra Emasculator) 273 

Castration (Orchectomy) 273 

Castration of the Dog 274 

Castration of the Monorchid and Cryptorchid Dog . . 275 

Castration of the Cat 275 

Castration of Birds (Caponizing) 270 



xii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER III. 

Diseases of the Prostate Gland. 

Examination 279 

Prostatitis 279 

Tumors of the Prostate Gland (Hypertrophy of the Prostate 

Gland) 280 

CHAPTER IV. 

Diseases of the Ovaries. 

Examination 283 

Inflammation of the Ovaries (Oophoritis) 283 

Tumors of the Ovaries 284 

Cysts > 284 

Oophorectomy (Ovariectomy) 285 

Oophorectomy in the Dog 286 

Oophorectomy in the Cat 289 

Poulardizing the Female Chicken 289 

CHAPTER V. 

Diseases of the Uterine Tubes. 

Examination 291 

Salpingitis 291 

Pyosalpinx 291 

Tumors (Cysts) 291 

CHAPTER VI. 

Diseases of the Uterus. 

Examination 292 

Metritis 293 

Acute Metritis 293 

Chronic Metritis (Pyometra) . , 296 

Puerperal Septicemia ' 298 

Eversion of the Uterus (Prolapse. Inversion of the Uterus) . . 300 

Torsion of the Cornua Uteri 302 

Rupture of the Uterus . . . . . . 303 

Tumors of the Uterus 303 

Fibromata 303 

Myomata 304 

Hydrometra 304 

Dystocia 305 



CONTENTS xiii 

CHAPTER VII. 

Diseases of the Vagina and Vulva. 

Examination 309 

Congenital Malformations 309 

Vaginitis and Vulvitis 309 

Prolapse of the Vagina 311 

Rupture of the Vagina 313 

Tumors of the Vulva and Vagina 313 

Fibromata 313 

Papillomata 314 

Sarcomata 314 

Venereal Granulomata • 314 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Diseases of the Mammary Glands. 

Examination .315 

Wounds and Iiijuries of the Mammary Glands 315 

Congestion of the Mammary Glands 316 

Manunitis (Mastitis) 316 

Tumors of the Mammary Glands 317 

Benign Tumors 317 

Fibromata • . . . . 317 

Lipoma ' 318 

Malignant Tumors . 318 

Carcinomata 318 

Sarcomata 318 



PART V. 

DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND BLOOD 
PRODUCING ORGANS. 

CHAPTER I. 

Anemia 319 

Leukemia 322 

Infectious Leukemia of Chickens 325 

Pseudoleukemia (Hodgkin's Disease) 327 

Hemophilia 328 

Scurvy (Scorbutus) 328 



XIV CONTENTS 

Animal Parasites in the Blood. (Filarise. Metastrongulinse) . 330 

Dirofilaria Immitis (Filaria Immitis) 330 

Hematozoon Lewisi . . 332 

Hsemostrongylus Vasorum 332 

Spiroptera Sanguinolenta 333 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of the Thyroid Glands. 

Examination and General Consideration 334 

Congestion of the Thyroid Glands , . 334 

Acute Thjo-oiditis ^ 335 

Goiter (Struma. Bronchocele) 336 

Parenchymatous Goiter .^ 336 

Cystic Goiter 339 

Fibrous Goiter 340 

Vascular Goiter 341 

MaUgnant Goiter 342 

Exophthalmic Goiter (Basedow's Disease. Graves's Disease) 343 



PART VI. 
DISEASES OF METABOLISM. 

CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of Metabolism. 

Diabetes 347 

Diabetes Insipidus 347 

Diabetes Mellitus 350 

Obesity 352 

Gout (Podagra. Arthritis Urica) 354 

Feather Eating (Feather Pulling in Birds) 357 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of Metabolism Affecting Primarily the Bones. 

Rachitis (Rickets) 359 

Osteomalacia (Brittleness of Bones) 362 



CONTENTS XV 

PART VII. 
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION. 

CHAPTER I. 

Articular Rheumatism (Polyarthritis Rheumatica) .... 363 

Muscular Rheumatism 365 

Fracture of Bones 368 

Cranial Bones 368 

Fracture of the Inferior Maxilla . 369 

Fracture of the Vertebrae . . 370 

Fracture of the Ribs 371 

Fracture of the Scapula . 371 

Fracture of the Humerus 372 

Fracture of the Radius and Ulna 372 

Fracture of the Metacarpal and Phalangeal Bones . . . 373 

Fracture of the Pelvis 373 

Fracture of the Femur 374 

Fracture of the Patella 375 

Fracture of the Tibia and Fibula 375 

CHAPTER II. 
Diseases of the Articulations. 

Wounds of the Articulations 376 

Sprains and Injuries to the Articulations 377 

Dislocation of the Articulations (Luxation) 378 

Temporomaxillary 378 

Vertebral 379 

Scapulohumeral . 379 

Humero-radio-ulnar 379 

Radio-ulnar-carpal 380 

Phalangeal 381 

Coxofemoral 381 

Patellar 382 

Tibiotarsal 383 

Caudal Vertebrae 383 

Inflammation of the Synovial Membrane and Articulations. 

(Synovitis. Arthritis) 383 



xvi CONTENTS 

PART VIII. • 
DISEASES OF THE URINARY SYSTEM. 

CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of the Kidneys. 

Examination 385 

Congestion of the Kidneys (Hyperemia . ) 387 

Acute Hyperemia 387 

Passive Hyperemia 388 

Inflammation of the Kidneys (Nephritis) . . . , . . . 388 

Acute Nephritis 388 

Chronic Nephritis 392 

Purulent Nephritis (Kidney Abscess) 396 

Inflammation of the Renal Pelvis (Pyelitis) 398 

Uremia 400 

Calculi in the Kidney (Nephrolithiasis) 402 

Dropsy of the Kidney (Hydronephrosis. Cystic Kidney) . . . 405 

Amyloid ffidney 407 

Tumors in the Kidney 407 

Animal Parasites in the Kidney 407 

Dioctophyme Renale (Eustrongylus Gigas) 407 

Other Parasites in the Kidney 409 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of the Bladder. 

Examination , 410 

Wounds of the Bladder 412 

Rupture of the Bladder 412 

Retention of Urine in the Bladder (Retentio Urinse Vesicalis) . 414 

Incontinence of Urine 416 

Catarrh of the Bladder (Cystitis, Urocystitis) 416 

Torsion of the Bladder 420 

CalcuH in the Bladder 420 

Tumors of the Bladder 423 

Parasites in the Bladder 423 



CONTENTS xvii 



CHAPTER III. 

Diseases of the Urethra. 

Examination 425 

Congenital Malformations (Occlusion of the Urethra) .... 425 

Wounds of the Urethra 426 

Stricture of the Urethra 426 

Calculi in the Urethra . 427 

Inflammation of the Urethra (Urethritis) 429 



PART IX. 
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of the Brain. 

General Considerations 431 

Examination 432 

Psychic Disturbances . 433 

Sensibility 433 

Hyperemia of the Brain (Congestion of the Brain) 435 

Anemia of the Brain (Cerebral Anemia) 437 

Meningo-encephalitis 438 

Cerebral Hemorrhage (Apoplexy) 440 

Tumors of the Brain 441 

CHAPTER 11. 

Diseases of the Spinal Cord. 

General Considerations 443 

Examination 443 

Meningomyelitis 443 

Concussion of the Spinal Cord (Injuries of the Spinal Cord) . 445 

Compression of the Spinal Cord 44S 



xviii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER III. 

Diseases of the Peripheral Nervous System. 

Injuries of the Peripheral Nerves . 450 

Pressure upon the Peripheral Nerves (Compression) .... 450 

Paralysis of the Peripheral Nerves 450 

Facial Nerve 450 

Trigeminal Nerve 452 

Auditory Nerve 453 

Radial Nerve 454 

Brachial Plexus 455 

Sciatic Nerve 456 

CHAPTER IV. 

Functional Nervous Diseases. 

Vertigo (Megrim) 455 

Epilepsy 456 

Reflex or Secondary Epilepsy 459 

Catalepsy 460 

Chorea 461 

Eclampsia 462 



^ PARTX. 
DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 

CHAPTER I. 

Non-Parasitic Skin Diseases. 

Examination 463 

Dandruff 464 

Alopecia 465 

Dermatitis 466 

Acne 468 

Eczema 469 



CONTENTS xix 

CHAPTER II. 

Parasitic Skin Diseases. 

Fleas 472 

Lice . 473 

Scabies (Mange. Red Mange. Itch) 475 

Sarcoptes Mite 476 

Demodex Mite 480 

Dermatomycosis (Vegetable Parasitic Disease of the Skin) . . 482 

Herpes Tonsurans (Ringworm. Red Itch) 482 

Favus (Honeycomb Ringworm. Comb Disease. "VMiite Comb) 484 



PART XI. 
DISEASES OF THE EAR. 

Examination ' 487 

Wounds of the Ear . 487 

Ulceration of the Concha 488 

Hematoma 489 

Otitis Externa (Otorrhea) 490 

Otitis Media and Interna 493 

Tumors (Neoplasms of the Ear) 493 

Papillomata 493 

Sebaceous Tumors or Cysts 494 

Parasites in the Ear 494 

Deafness 495 

Ear Fistula 495 



PART XII. 
DISEASES OF THE EYE. 

CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of the Eyelids. 

Examination 497 

Wounds of the Eyelids 497 

Inflammation of the Eyelids (Blepharitis)" 498 



XX CONTENTS 

Malposition of the Eyelids 499 

Entropion 499 

Ectropion "... 500 

Ptosis (Blepharoptosis) .501 

Paralysis of the Orbicularis Nerve 502 

Spasm of the Orbicularis Nerve (Blepharospasm) .... 503 

Trichiasis 503 

Districhiasis 504 

Adhesions of the Eyelids 504 

Ankyloblepharon 505 

SjTiiblepharon ■ . 505 

Lagophthalmos 506 

Tumors of the Eyelids 506 

Papillomata (Warts) 506 

Chalazion (Meibomian Cyst) . 507 

Pilosebaceous Cysts 507 

Lipoma and Sebaceous Tumors in Birds . . . . ' . . 508 

Enlargement of the Glands of Moll 508 

Granulomas 508 

Malignant Neoplasms . 508 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of the Con.junctiva. 

Examination 510 

Conjunctivitis 510 

Catarrhal Conjunctivitis 511 

Purulent Conjunctivitis (Blennorrhea) 512 

Parenchymatous Conjunctivitis (Erysipelatious Conjunctivi- 
tis) 514 

Croupous Conjunctivitis . '. 516 

Follicular Conjunctivitis 517 

Exanthematous Conjunctivitis 518 

Pterygium 519 

Traumatic Lesions of the Conjunctiva 519 

Foreign Bodies in the Conjunctiva ........ 519 

Wounds of the Conjunctiva 520 

Corrosions and Burns of the Conjunctiva 521 

Ulceration of the Conjxmctiva 521 

Tumors and Growths on the Conjunctiva 522 

Inflammation of the Membrana Nictitans 522 

Wounds of the Membrana Nictitans 523 

Tumors of the Membrana Nictitans 523 



CONTENTS XXI 

CHAPTER III. 

Diseases of the Lacrimal Apparatus. 

Examination 524 

Lacrimation (Epiphora) 524 

Dacryocystitis 525 

CHAPTER IV. 

Diseases of the Cornea. 

Examination 526 

Keratitis 526 

Xon-suppurative Keratitis 527 

Superficial Keratitis 527 

Vascular Keratitis (Pannus) 528 

Keratitis Pigmentosa (Pigmentary Keratitis) .... 529 

Keratitis Punctata Superficialis (Facetted Keratitis) . 529 

Parenchymatous Keratitis 530 

Keratitis Punctata Profunda 532 

Suppurative Keratitis 532 

Ulceration of the Cornea 532 

Abscess of the Cornea 534 

Keratitis Neuroparalytica . 535 

Keratitis from Lagophthalmus 535 

Foreign Bodies and Wounds of the Cornea 535 

Opacities of the Cornea 536 

Ectasia of the Cornea 537 

Inflammatory Ectasia 537 

Staphyloma 537 

Keratectasia ' 537 

Non-inflammatory Ectasia 538 

Keratoconus 538 

Keratoglobus 538 

Tumors of the Cornea 538 

CHAPTER V. 

Diseases of the Iris and Ciliary Body. 

Congenital Defects of the Iris 539 

Mydriasis . . . 540 

Myosis 540 

Iritis and Cyclitis (Iridocyclitis) 540 

Cysts and Tumors of the Iris 541 



xxii • CONTENTS 



CHAPTER VI. 

Diseases of the Lens. 

Examination 542 

Cataract 542 

Luxation of the Lens 544 



CHAPTER VII. 

•Diseases of the Retina and Choroid . . . 545 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Diseases of the Optic Xerve. 

Papillitis 546 

Retrobulbar Neuritis 546 

Atrophy of the Optic Nerve . . . . ' 547 

Amblyopia 547 

Amaurosis 547 

CHAPTER IX. 

Diseases of the Globe and Orbit. 

Panophthalmitis 548 

Glaucoma 549 

Hydropthalmus 550 

Exophthalmus 550 

Luxation of the Eyeball 550 

Enophthalmus 551 

Strabismus 552 

Nystagmus 552 

Parasites of the Eye 553 

Fracture of the Orbit 553 

Inflammation of the Orbit 553 

Tumors of the Orbit 553 



CONTENTS xxiii 



• PART XIII. 
HERNIA. 

General Remarks 555 

Umbilical Hernia 557 

Ventral Hernia . . . . 558 

Inguinal Hernia 560 

Inguinal Hernia in the Female 560 

Inguinal and Scrotal Hernia in the Male 561 

Femoral Hernia 562 

Diaphragmatic Hernia . 563 

Perineal Hernia 563 



PART XIV. 
INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 

CHAPTER I. 

Acute General Infectious Diseases. 

Distemper of Dogs 565 

Distemper of Cats 577 

Typhus of Dogs (Canine Typhus. Hemorrhagic Gastro-enteritis. 

Dog Plague. Black Tongue) 579 

Purpura Hemorrhagica of Dogs 583 

Fowl Cholera (Cholera Gallinarum. Pasteurellosis Avium. Fowl 

Typhoid) 584 

Fowl Pest (Fowl Plague. Pestus Avium) 589 

CHAPTER II. 
Acute Infectious Diseases with Localization in Certain Organs. 

Epitheliosis Infectiosa Avium (Contagious Epithelioma. Chicken- 
pox. Diphtheria. Roup. Canker) 593 

Anthrax 599 

Foot-and-mouth Disease (Ai)hthoD Epizooticac) 000 

Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Cats (Infectious Gastro-enteritis) . . 600 



xxiv CONTENTS 



CHAPTER III. 

Infectious Diseases with Special Involvement of the Nervous 

System. 

Rabies (Hydrophobia. Lyssa) 603 

Infectious Bulbar Paralysis (Pseudorabies) ....... 611 

Tetanus (Lockjaw) 613 



CHAPTER IV. 

Chronic Infectious Diseases. 

Tuberculosis of Birds (Tuberculosis Avium. Avian Tuberculosis) 616 

Tuberculosis of Dogs and Cats 620 

Glanders . . " ^ .... 622 

Pseudo-actinomycosis of Dogs (Streptotrichosis Canum. Actiuo- . 

myces Canis) 623 

CHAPTER Y. 

Infectious Diseases Produced by Protozoa. 

Spirochaetosis of Fowls (Spirochsetosis A^dum. Spirillosis of 

Chickens) 625 

Enterohepatitis (Blackhead) .' . . . 627 

Infectious Diarrhea of Chicks ("VMiite Diarrhea) 629 

Piroplasmosis of the Dog (Infectious Jaundice. BiHary Fever. 

Mahgnant Jaundice) 633 

Table of Equivalents in Weights and Measures 637 



DISEASES OF THE SMALL DOMESTIC 

ANIMALS. 



PART L 
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 



CHAPTER I. 
DISEASES OF THE NASAL PASSAGES. 

Examination.— The nasal passages are very small and do 
not admit of a free examination. In some breeds of dogs 
(English bull) there is an obstruction of the nasal passages 
which during inspiration produces a peculiar snoring sound. 
This should not be mistaken for an abnormal condition. In 
other breeds (Collie) where the nasal passages are longer 
and less tortuous respiration produces no sound. Dogs 
breathe freely through the mouth. In the cat the nasal 
passages are very small and short and can only be examined 
at their openings. 

The examination of the nasal passages should be made as 
follows: Good light such as ordinary daylight or strong 
artificial light is necessary. A mirror to reflect light into 
the nasal openings is of little value as the passages are so 
small that the light will be reflected only a short distance. 
A very small nasal dilator will be found useful in some of 
the larger breeds. A small flexible probe with a pledget of 
cotton securely wrapped around one end, large enough to 
occlude the nostril when inserted rather high up, will at once 
2 



18 DISEASES OF THE NASAL PASSAGES 

induce sneezing and the character of the secretions from the 
opposite nostril can be more easily determined. The probe 
is then removed and inserted in the other nostril for a similar 
examination. The nose in health is moist and cool with a 
very thin, slight mucous discharge. The mucous membrane 
is variable in color; in most breeds dark, in others light with 
dark spots, and in a few breeds pink. 

Abnormal conditions to be noted are the following: 

r^TT^or^.— Small papillomas on the skin and mucous 
membrane at the entrance to the nasal openings are fre- 
quently seen. Epitheliomas extending from the lips to form 
a diffuse enlargement which may partially or completely 
obstruct the nasal openings. Polypoid enlargements on the 
mucous membrane of the nasal passages are often noted and 
can be accurately determined by using a small, fine wire 
snare to pull them toward the nasal opening. 

Foreign Bodies.— Yrequentiy in hunting dogs small pieces 
of straw, twigs and other foreign material will be found rather 
high up in the passages. These injure the mucous membrane 
and often become deeply imbedded in it and the underlying 
tissues. 

Parasites.— The Pentastoma rhinaria (Linguatula rhinaria) 
is occasionally found in the nasal passages and w^hen suspected 
the nasal discharge should be examined microscopically to 
reveal the presence of the eggs of the parasite. 

Infectious.— DistemYier infection frequently takes place in 
the nasal passages and produces both local and general 
symptoms. Staphylococcus infection from wounds in the 
mucous membrane, or as secondary infection following dis- 
temper, is of common occurrence. In these conditions the 
nose is usually dry and hot, showing numerous fissures on 
the mucous membrane and nose at the borders of the nasal 
openings. 

Hemorrhage.— This occurs often from injuries, as blows 
over the nasal bones, fractures of the nasal bones; from 
punctured wounds through the bones and from injury to the 
turbinated bones. 

Malformations.— Some diseases (rachitis) produce a de- 
formity of the nasal bones interfering with the free passage 



ACUTE NASAL CATARRH 19 

of air through the nostrils and producing marked enlarge- 
ment of the nose. 

Discharge.— In acute and chronic nasal catarrh (coryza, 
rhinitis) the mucous and serous discharge from the nasal 
passages is greatly increased. The general condition is but 
little disturbed. 

ACUTE NASAL CATARRH. 

Coryza. Rhinitis. 

Definition.— Acute inflammatory condition of the nasal 

mucous membrane producing a serous or mucous discharge. 

• Etiology. — (a) Inhalations of dust or other foreign material. 

(b) Inhalations of irritating gases or chemicals. 

(c) Exposure to cold (cold draughts of air). 

(d) Ordinary infection (staphylococcus, etc.); specific 
infections (distemper, etc.). 

(e) Linguatula rhinaria (early stages of invasion). 
During the first stages there is hyperemia and dryness of 

the nasal mucosa, which is soon followed by a discharge that 
is serous, seromucous, or mucopurulent. This discharge 
often causes excoriation of the tissues with which it comes in 
contact. In non-pigmented membranes the congestion is 
more prominent. 

The discharge when examined with the microscope shows 
epithelial cells, leukocytes, bacteria and sometimes the eggs 
of the parasite, Linguatula rhinaria. 

Symptoms.— Sneezing and the presence of a thin, serous 
discharge in the early stages, which later is mixed with mucus, 
becomes dry and adheres around the nasal openings. The 
nose is rubbed against objects and wiped with the paws. 
Excoriations appear around the margins of nasal openings. 

Diagnosis.— The presence of the above symptoms and the 
absence of any general disturbance characterize simple 
rhinitis. 

Prognosis. Favorable.— Recovery usually takes place in 
about one to two weeks. 

Treatment.— Hygienic— The animal should be kept warm 
and protected from draughts of cold air. 



20 DISEASES OF THE NASAL PASSAGES 

Medical.— Siprsiy the nasal passages with a warm boric 
acid (2 per cent.) or sodium bicarbonate (2 per cent.) solution. 
Remove the dry discharge from the edge of the nasal openings. 
Apply vaselin or zinc oxid ointment to those parts as protec- 
tive agents. 

EMPYEMA OF THE INFRAORBITAL FOSS^ OF BIRDS. 

Definition.— A collection of pus in the infraorbital fossae 
which causes a distention of one or both of them. 

Etiology.— This condition usually occurs during the course 
of infectious nasal catarrh, diphtheria or parasites (monos- 
toma) . The mucous membrane becomes infected and the ' 
purulent material collects in the fossse greatly distending 
them. 

Symptoms.— A warm painful swelling is noticed in the infra- 
orbital region, which may aflFect one or both sides. The 
enlargement, which is quite firm, protrudes over and closes 
the eye. 

Prognosis.— Depends upon the primary cause. When the 
affection is confined to the fossae the prognosis is favorable. 

Treatment.— S^^r^ica/.— An incision should be made over 
the enlargement and the accumulated material which is 
quite hard and firm removed with a curette. The cavity 
should be washed with antiseptics. 

INFECTIOUS NASAL CATARRH OF RABBITS. 

Rahhit Plague. Rabhit Influenza. Rabbit Distemper. 

Definition.— An infectious disease involving the mucous 
membrane of the nasal passages, which later produces general 
infection. 

Etiology.— The exciting cause is a small, slender, immobile 
bacillus, similar in size to the bacillus of cholera in birds. It 
does not form spores and is Gram-negative. This organism 
is also pathogenic to guinea-pigs and mice, but rabbits are 
most susceptible. Infection takes place by inhalation during 
cohabitation with affected animals, or by being taken in with 



INFECTIOUS NASAL CATARRH OF RABBITS 21 

the food. The organism produces a severe inflammation of 
the mucosa of the nasal passages and sinuses, and later enters 
the circulation producing general infection, causing elevation 
of temperature and in most cases an inflammation of the 
serous membranes. The infection is often carried directly to 
the trachea, bronchial tubes and lungs, where it produces an 
acute inflammatory condition. 

Necropsy.— The nasal, oral and pharyngeal mucous mem- 
branes are intensively congested, swollen and covered with a 
purulent exudate. In the lungs are often found evidences 
of a bronchopneumonia. The thoracic cavity may contain 
a serous or purulent exudate with fibrinous deposits on the 
pleura. The peritoneum will also show inflammation with 
some exudate in the abdominal cavity. The bacilli can be 
found in large numbers in the exudate and in affected organs. 

Symptoms. — The incubation period is from four to six 
days. The first symptoms noticed are depression, a copious 
discharge of serous secretion from both nasal openings and 
severe sneezing. The temperature is usually from 104°-106° 
F. and there is complete loss of appetite. This discharge 
soon becomes thick and tenacious, adhering around the nasal 
openings and on the hair of the chest and limbs, the animal 
frequently rubbing its nose with its paws to relieve the intense 
irritation. With the extension of the inflammation to the 
larynx and bronchi, dyspnea and coughing result. Exhaus- 
tion is soon noticed due to the general infection and anorexia. 

Prognosis.— Very unfavorable in acute cases, death occur- 
ring in three to five days. In subacute and chronic cases in 
older animals the course is fifteen to thirty days. Complete 
recovery, however, is rare; chronic nasal catarrh is a common 
sequel. 

Diagnosis. —The rapid development, high temperature, 
absence of coccidia (see rhinitis coccidiosa), the acute inflam- 
mation of the serous membranes and the finding of the specific 
bacillus in the discharges confirm the diagnosis. 

Treatment.— Mec?ica/.— The nasal passages should be 
sprayed with antiseptic solutions (boric acid 2 per cent, or 
sodium bicarbonate 2 per cent.), the accumulated crusts 
removed with warm water and a protective dressing of zinc 



22 DISEASES OF THE NASAL PASSAGES 

oxid ointment or vaselin applied. The use of internal anti- 
septics (salol 0.12-0.2, etc.) is indicated to combat the 
general infection. Autogenic vaccines may be used. 

Prophylaxis.— All material soiled by the nasal discharges 
as well as all animals that die should be burned and well 
covered with lime; all parts of the hutch and the runways 
thoroughly disinfected, and a quarantine of at least two 
weeks imposed upon all newly acquired animals. 

PARASITIC NASAL CATARRH OF RABBITS. 

Rhinitis Coccidiosa. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the mucous membrane 
of the nasal passages and sinuses due to an infestation with 
coccidia. 

Etiology.— This condition is due to the Coccidia perforans 
or the Coccidia oviformis, which gains entrance to the nasal 
passages and sinuses. The discharges of affected animals 
are infectious. Darap hutches with soiled litter and filth 
in them favor the spread of the disease. Young animals are 
more susceptible than those fully matured, the latter usually 
contracting the disease in a mild form. 

Symptoms.— The clinical s^TQptoms are similar to those of 
infectious nasal catarrh. The nasal discharge is present, 
being serous at first, later becoming thick and tenacious. 
After two or three days the animals become depressed, fre- 
quently gnashing the teeth and rubbing the nose. The tem- 
perature, however, is subnormal. In some cases the mucous 
membranes of the mouth and the conjunctiva exhibit 
catarrhal symptoms. In cases where the coccidia pass into 
the middle ear, the semicircular canals become involved 
causing the head to be carried to one side, staggering gait, 
and in some cases rolling over and over. Spasms of the 
muscles occur followed by paralysis. Paralysis, however, 
is a symptom of many irritating conditions in rabbits which 
in other animals ordinarily cause excitement. Later a pro- 
fuse diarrhea is noticed followed rapidly by exliaustion and 
death. 



CHRONIC NASAL CATARRH . 23 

Diagnosis.— Microscopic examination of the nasal dis- 
charges reveals the presence of the coccidia. In otodectes 
cynotis mange, catarrhal symptoms of the mucous mem- 
brane are absent. 

Prognosis. —Unfavorable. 

Treatment.— The nasal passages, eyes and mouth are 
cleansed with antiseptic solutions and astringents (boric acid 
2 per cent., zinc sulphate 1 per cent., copper sulphate 1 per 
cent., creolin 2 per cent.). Small doses of sulphur (0.1-0.2) 
may be given every four to six hours to produce antiseptic 
and laxative action. 

Prevention.— (See Infectious Nasal Catarrh of Rabbits.) 

CHRONIC NASAL CATARRH. 

Chronic Coryza. Chronic Rhinitis. 

Definition.— A chronic inflammatory condition of the 
mucous membrane of the nasal passages with a mucopurulent 
discharge. 

Etiology. —Usually follows repeated attacks of acute nasal 
catarrh; ordinary infection; tumors. 

Pathology. — (a) In the productive or hypertrophic form 
there is a generalized infiltration of the mucosa, particularly 
that covering the lower portion of the turbinated bones, 
which leads to a more or less extensive thickening of the 
mucous membrane. The mucous glands increase in size, 
there is a thick, viscid secretion, and the nasal passages 
become obstructed by enlargement of the lower part of the 
turbinated bones. The atrophic form follows the course of 
the hypertrophic. The hyperplastic tissue atrophies, the 
epithelium of the mucosa and the glands is destroyed, and 
there is a collection of a yellowish, purulent material on the 
surface of the mucous membrane. (6) The discharge from 
the nasal passages contains bacteria, leukocytes, red cor- 
puscles and epithelial cells. 

Symptoms.— A purulent discharge varying in quantity 
from both nasal passages. This discharge in severe cases is 
streaked with blood and has a very offensive odor; it causes 



24 DISEASES OF THE NASAL PASSAGES 

excoriations on the mucous membrane and skin at the nasal 
openings, where it drys and forms hard crusts. There are 
frequent paroxysms of sneezing. In cases where the nasal 
passages are occluded the animal breathes through its mouth. 
In some cases where infection is severe general symptoms of 
loss of appetite, dulness and emaciation will be noted. 

Diagnosis.— The presence of the nasal discharge, the chronic 
course and the mild general symptoms in severe cases. 

Prognosis.— Not so favorable as acute nasal catarrh. It 
requires several weeks for a complete disappearance of the 
symptoms. 

iTe&tment.— Hygie7iic.—T\ie animal should be kept in a 
warm place free from all irritating materials which might 
affect the nasal mucous membrane. 

31 edicaL— The nasal passages should be spraj^ed daily with 
creolin (2 per cent.), boric acid (2 per cent.), or sodium bicar- 
bonate (2 per cent.) solution; the dried crusts may be removed 
with warm water, and zinc oxid ointment applied to the 
membranes and skin at the nasal openings. 

Sera-vaccine. — Cultures may be grown from the nasal dis- 
charge, and a standardized autogenic vaccine made. Two 
c.c. of this vaccine are injected subcutaneously every five to 
seven days until the purulent discharge ceases. 



EPISTAXIS. 

Definition.— Hemorrhages from the nasal passages. 

Etiology.— (a) Injuries to the nasal mucous membrane 
from foreign bodies (straws, twigs, etc.); probing; injuries 
to the turbinated bones due to fractures or trephining the 
sinuses. 

(b) Carbolic acid poisoning causing necrosis of the mem- 
brane extending into the nasal passages which opens the 
vessels. 

(c) Specific and ordinary infections during the course of 
distemper and chronic nasal catarrh. 

(d) Parasitic invasion (Linguatula rhinaria) . Hemorrhage 
occurs during the course of the following disease conditions : 



PARASITES OF THE NASAL PASSAGES 25 

Hemophilia, plethora, leukemia, parasitic anemia and 
catarrhal pneumonia. 

Symptoms.— A unilateral or bilateral discharge of blood 
from the nasal passages. When primary the blood is of a 
bright red color and flows away a few drops at a time or the 
flow may be copious, and sometimes sufficient to produce 
general symptoms. When secondary to chronic nasal 
catarrh or distemper it is mixed with the secretions. ■ 

As small animals lick the nose the amount of hemorrhage 
is not easily determined. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis depends on the character and 
amount of the hemorrhage. Most cases terminate favorably. 

Treatment.— ilfec?ica/.— In mild cases when treatment is 
necessary use injections of cold water (ice-water) or alum 
solution (3 per cent.) into the nasal passages. In severe 
cases when hemorrhage is copious and persistent use injec- 
tions of adrenalin chlorid (1-1000) solution. Give internally 
iron and quinin citrate (0.2-0.35) three times daily; or adre- 
nalin chlorid (1-1000) ten to twenty drops, twice daily. 

Surgical.— ^hen the hemorrhage is continuous and cannot 
be stopped by medical treatment, it will be necessary to use 
a tampon made of gauze and saturated in an alum (3 per 
cent.) or tannic acid (3 per cent.) solution. They should be 
inserted with a small flexible probe firmly and carefully as 
far up the nasal passages as possible. In some cases it will 
be necessary to use the same kind of a tampon inserted in the 
posterior part of the nasal passage. This is best accom- 
plished by use of the mouth speculum and a flexible probe 
bent in the shape of a hook. When a tampon is inserted a 
free end should be exposed to facilitate removal. As small 
animals breathe freely through the mouth tampons may be 
inserted in both nasal passages. 

PARASITES OF THE NASAL PASSAGES. 

Definition.— Infestation of the nasal passages and chambers 
by the Linguatula rhinaria. 

Etiology.— //i9/or?/.— The infestation of the dog with this 
I)arasite is rather rare in the United States. Only a few cases 



26 DISEASES OF THE NASAL PASSAGES 

have been recorded, but in other countries (France, Germany) 
they are frequently found. The Linguatula rhinaria are 
white, the body lanceolated, elongated, vermiform and flat- 
tened above and below, the ventral surface nearly plane, the 
dorsal surface rounded, anterior extremity broad and rounded, 
posterior extremity attenuated. The thorax is short and 
between it and the abdomen there is no distinct boundary. 
The integuments show about ninety rings or segments, widest 
in their middle, causing the margins of the parasite to be 
distinctly crenated. The hooks are sharp, curved, and bi- 
articulated. Each hook is retractile into a small sheath and 
is moved by muscular cords arranged in different direc- 
tions. The mouth is rounded, digestive tube rectilinear. Size : 
Male, 18-20 mm. long, 3 mm. broad in front and 0.5 mm. 
behind. Female, 8-10 cm. long, 8-10 mm. broad in front 
and 2 mm. behind. The eggs are ovoid, 90 mmm. long and 
70 mmm. broad. 

The life cycle of the Linguatula rhinaria is as follows: 
The female deposits her eggs in the nasal passages of the 
dog; the eggs are expelled by sneezing and, being surrounded 
by mucus, they adhere to grasses or whatever they happen 
to come in contact with. The grasses are eaten by any of 
the herbivorous animals. The shells of the eggs are dissolved 
by the gastric juice and the embryos are set at liberty in the 
intestinal tract. Each embryo is provided with a median 
stylet and two curved hooks with which it penetrates 
the walls of the intestines and reaches the peritoneum, 
mesenteric glands, liver and the lungs where it becomes 
encysted. During the period of encystment in the organs 
and glands the embryo undergoes successive changes in its 
development and becomes a larva (Linguatula denticulatum) . 
When mature the larvae migrate by means of their hooks and 
the sharp spiculse on their skin. Some of them pass into the 
bronchi and trachea reaching the nasal passages where they 
develop into the perfect parasite. Dogs become infested 
by eating the viscera of animals containing the larval form 
which passes from the stomach via the esophagus to the 
nasal passages where it develops. 



PARASITES OF THE NASAL PASSAGES 27 

Necropsy.— In the early stages of the invasion of the Lin- 
guatula rhinaria they attach themselves to the mucous 
membrane of the nasal cavities producing an acute inflam- 
mation. The exudate is increased in quantity and later is 
mixed with pus covering the surface of the mucous membrane 
which becomes greatly thickened especially around the 
turbinated bones and in the nasal chambers. In the later 
stages necrosis of the turbinated bones and nasal septum 
may take place. 

The discharge from the nasal passages often contains the 
parasites, pus, epithelial cells and large numbers of the ovoid 
eggs. 

Symptoms.— In the early stages the symptoms are par- 
oxysms of sneezing; obstruction of the nasal passages; a 
discharge which is at first serous, later becomes mucopurulent, 
mixed with blood, and has a very offensive odor. Accumula- 
tions of the dried <lischarge form crusts at the nasal openings. 
In animals of a nervous temperament symptoms of excite- 
ment are noted from reflex irritation of the nasal passages. 
Severe hemorrhage is seen from the necrosis opening blood- 
vessels. 

Diagnosis.— The presence of the parasites or eggs in the 
nasal discharge. 

Prognosis.— Depends upon the number of parasites and the 
probability of becoming reinfested. 

Treatment.— MefeaL— Inhalations of small amounts of 
chloroform, turpentine, or some other volatile oils. Spray 
the passages twice daily with creolin (2 per cent.), carbolic 
acid (2 per cent.), or boric acid (2 per cent.) solution. Re- 
move the crusts from around the nasal openings with warm 
creolin solution and apply zinc oxid ointment to the excori- 
ated membrane and skin. Give internally tincture nux vomica 
(0.3-0.65) daily; iron and quinin citrate (0.2-0.4) daily. 

Surgical.— Irrigsiiion of the nasal passages with a warm 
solution of creolin (2 per cent.). This can be done by using 
a small, soft rubber tube inserted as high up in the nasal 
passages as possible. Attach a funnel to the other end and 
pour the solution slowly into it using only a small quantity 
of the fluid. The nasal passages can also be irrigated through 



28 DISEASES OF THE NASAL PASSAGES 

the posterior nares by the use of a hard nozzle bent in the 
form of a curved hook. Depress the head and allow the 
fluid to flow out through the nasal passages. 

NEOPLASMS OF THE NASAL PASSAGES. 

PapUlomata.— These are benign tumors having a frame- 
work of fibrous tissue and bloodvessels covered by squamous 
epithelium. The surface of the tumor is roughened by many 
elevations and proliferations. Papillomata are most com- 
monly located around the margins of the nasal openings and 
especially at the juncture of the skin and mucous membrane. 
Sometimes they extend a short distance up the nasal passages 
and may extend to the skin of the lips and the nose. They 
are found here in two forms : (a) A hard form which presents 
smooth, rounded elevations on the skin, (b) A soft form, 
which is pedunculated, has an irregular, broad surface and 
cauliflower-like appearance. The soft tumors are found on 
the mucous membrane. In size they vary from that of a 
millet seed to a walnut. There may be a large number or 
only a few present. 

Treatment.— >S z/r^ica?.— They are removed as follows: 
The animal should be given an anesthetic (morphin subcu- 
taneously, or ether inhalation). Sterilize curved scissors, 
forceps and artery forceps; disinfect the surface of the skin, 
mucous membrane and tumors with boric acid solution 
(2 per cent.). Grasp the tumor with the forceps and cut off 
with the scissors, and if the hemorrhage is persistent use the 
artery forceps. Alum (2 per cent.) or silver nitrate solution 
(0.25-0.5) may afterward be applied. The after-treatment 
consists in washing the surface where the tumors are removed 
with antiseptic solutions. 

Polypoid Fibromata.— These occur as enlargements on the 
mucous membrane of the nasal passages and frequently 
interfere with breathing, producing complete obstruction of 
one or both passages. 

Treatment.— These are best removed with a fine wire snare. 
Inject astringent solutions (alum 2 per cent.) up the nasal 
passages to control the hemorrhage. When this method of 



NEOPLASMS OF THE NASAL PASSAGES 29 

removal fails it is best to trephine the superior wall of the 
nasal passages and extirpate the tumor through the opening. 
After-treatment consists of warm antiseptic solutions injected 
daily up the passages. 

Malignant Tumors.— Occasionally in the nasal passages 
are found epitheliomas, osteosarcomas, and sarcomas which 
are usually secondary to primary growths having their origin 
in the buccal mucosa, maxillary bones or lips (epitheliomas) . 

Symptoms.— Malignant growths give rise to distortions of 
the nasal bones, lips and often result in necrosis of the parts 
involved. The nasal discharge will contain necrotic material 
and blood and has a very offensive odor. 

Diagnosis. — To make an accurate diagnosis some of the 
tumors should be obtained and examined microscopically. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is very unfavorable. 

Treatment.— Owing to the location of the tumors, their 
malignant character and the tissues involved, treatment is 
not to be attempted. 



CHAPTER II. 

DISEASES OF THE LARYNX. 

Examination.— (a) With the mouth speculum, laryngo- 
scope and good light, the anterior portion of the larynx and 
the surrounding tissues can be readily inspected provided the 
tongue is drawn well forward. 

(b) By examining some of the nasal discharge collected 
with a dressing forceps carrying a pledget of cotton, its 
character is decided. 

(c) By palpation, enlargements, injuries and the degree 
of sensitiveness may be determined. 

Lar3mgitis.— Two forms of laryngitis are frequently 
observed in small animals, viz: (a) Acute, and (b) chronic. 

Acute Laryngitis.— Definition.— An acute catarrhal inflam- 
mation of the mucous membrane of the larynx. 

Etiology. — (a) Excessive use of the voice (barking). This 
is often seen at dog shows; in hounds after hunting; in some 
dogs when penned up or tied ; during the course of rabies and 
the nervous form of distemper; excitement. 

(6) Inhalations of dust, dirt, etc.; injuries (tight collars, 
etc.). Inhalations of gases and smoke; irritating drugs and 
chemicals. 

(c) Exposure to cold. 

(d) Infections (staphylococcus, etc.) and during the course 
of infectious diseases (rabies, distemper, etc.). 

(e) Extension of inflammation from adjacent parts. 
Pathology.— (a) There is an acute inflammation of the 

mucous membrane which, in the early stages, is covered by 
a thin serous exudate which later becomes turbid from admix- 
ture of leukocytes. From the irritation produced by cough- 
ing small quantities of blood are often raised. 'Wlien infection 
is present the secretions are mucopurulent in character. 



CHRONIC LARYNGITIS 31 

(6) The discharge contains bacteria, leukocytes, red cor- 
puscles and epithelial cells. 

Symptoms.— Hoarseness, change of voice, frequent 
attempts at deglutition, a harsh, dry cough which later 
becomes softer and moist as the secretions are increased. 
The mucous membranes are congested and swollen. Pressure 
on the larynx, exercise, excitement or drinking cold water 
induces coughing. General symptoms are rare. 

Diagnosis.— The presence of the harsh, dry cough which is 
aggravated by exercise and excitement and the absence of 
general disturbance are characteristic of laryngitis. 

Prognosis.— Favorable. Recovery usually follows in eight 
to ten days, unless when secondary to rabies, distemper, etc. 

Treatment. — i^2/^^en^c.— Keep warm; supply plenty of 
fresh air. 

Dietetic— Give warm milk and warm liquid foods. 

Medical.— Direct application of medicinal preparations to 
the mucous membrane is unpracticable and of little value. 
The following formula should be used to allay irritation and 
stop the coughing: 

I^ — Morphini hydrochlorati 0.1 

Aquae amygdalae amarge 30.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful three times daily. 

SurgicaL— Apply Priesnitz compress or hot antiphlogistin 
pack over the larynx. Renew twice daily. 

Chronic Laryngitis.— Definition.— A chronic catarrhal in- 
flammation of the mucosa and submucosa of the larynx. 

Etiology.— This is usually the result of frequent acute 
attacks, and therefore the causes enumerated under acute 
laryngitis are applicable to the chronic form. Chronic larj^n- 
gitis is often the result of the extension of chronic nasal and 
pharyngeal catarrh; the presence of papillomata and poly- 
poid fibromata within the larynx; as a sequel to distemper; 
may be caused by pressure on the vagus nerve (enlarged 
mediastinal lymph glands, sarcomas, carcinomas, etc.); 
to direct irritation of the mucosa by malignant gro^^i:hs; 
enlarged thyroids. 



32 DISEASES OF THE LARYNX 

Pathology.— Chronic catarrh leads to hyperemia of the 
parts with h}^ertrophy of the mucosa and the submucosa, 
together with fibrous tissue proliferation. Localized thick- 
enings, either flat or wart-like, are often noticed. The sub- 
mucosa is infiltrated with cells* and the mucous glands are 
swollen and distinct, producing a granular condition. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms are somewhat similar to those 
of acute laryngitis but not so severe and continue for a longer 
time. The cough is hoarse, dry, seldom moist, and is aggra- 
vated by exposure to cold, exercise or excitement. The 
larynx is less sensitive than in the acute form when examined 
by external manipulation. After severe attacks of coughing 
the patients may show nausea and vomiting. 

Diagnosis. — The chronic course, absence of general symp- 
toms and the cough characterize the condition. 

Prognosis.— Omng to the changes in the mucosa and the 
submucosa, improvement is slow and complete recovery 
seldom takes place. 

HiesLtment.— Hygienic— Keep warm; supply plenty of 
fresh air. 

Dietetic.— Give warm liquid foods (milk, soups, etc.). 

Medical.— The follomng formulae maybe used to stop the 
coughing and allay the irritation : 

I^ — Morphini sulphatis 0.1 

Aquse amygdalae amarae 30.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful three times daily. 



or 



^ — Potassi bromidi . . 10.0 

Morphini sulphatis . . . 0.1 

Aquse distillata 150.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 
■ Sig. — Give teaspoonful three times daily. 

For expectorant action may use the following: 

^ — Ammonii chloridi 5.0 

Antimonii et potassi tartras 0.5 

Extract, glycyrrhizae 10.0 

Aquse feniculse 180.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful every eight to ten hours. 



CHRONIC LARYNGITIS 33 

or . 

I^ — ^Apomorphin. hydrochloras 0.05 

Acidi hydrochlorici 1.0 

Aquse distillata 250.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful twice daily. 

Syrup of tar or syrup of wild cherry may be given in 
teaspoonful doses twice daily. 

Inhalations of medicinal preparations (turpentine, etc.) 
and direct applications (silver nitrate 1, glycerin 130) may 
be used in some of the more obstinate cases. 



CHAPTER III. 

DISEASES OF THE TRACHEA AXD BRONCHIAL 

TUBES. 

Examination. — (a) By palpation, the upper part of the 
trachea can be exammed for enlargements, deformities of 
the tracheal rings, constrictions and sensitiveness to pressure. 
Often when inflammatory conditions are present, slight 
pressure on the trachea will induce coughing, attempts at 
swallowing and considerable uneasiness and pain. 

(6) By auscultation, the condition of the mucous mem- 
brane and the character of the secretions can be determined. 
The tracheal and bronchial sounds are most distinct at the 
entrance of the trachea to the thorax. A phonendoscope 
held directly against the trachea at this point will greatly 
assist in the examination. 

ACUTE TRACHEITIS AND BRONCHITIS. 

Definition.— These are acute inflammatory conditions 
invohTQg the mucous membrane of the trachea and the 
bronchial tubes. 

Etiology. — (a) Small particles of foreign bodies (dust, etc.) 
enter the trachea and bronchial tubes producing excoriations 
and congestion of the mucous membrane which allow infec- 
tion to take place. If these substances are putrescent a fetid 
bronchitis will be produced. 

(6) Irritating gases (ammonia, etc.) and the fumes of 
acids (carbolic, etc.) may excite an attack of bronchitis by 
direct irritation to the mucous membrane. ^Alien inhaled 
in concentrated form and in large quantities they will induce 
inflammation extending into the smaller bronchioli producing 
an acute capillary bronchitis. The excretion of toxic sub- 



ACUTE TRACHEITIS AND BRONCHITIS 35 

stances by the bronchial mucosa causes a rapid proHferation 
of the surface and granular epithelium of the mucous mem- 
brane and an increased secretion of mucus. The epithelium 
of the mucous membrane becomes more embryonal in char- 
acter and therefore less resistant to the invasion of micro- 
organisms. At the same time these organisms, ordinarily 
present, multiply more rapidly and increase in virulence, and 
unless the process is arrested a bronchitis is soon established. 
Some drugs (iodin, bromin, etc.) when administered in large 
doses and continued for quite a time may be excreted in 
sufficient quantities to produce an acute bronchitis. 

(c) Inhalations of smoke containing various gases and 
particles of foreign material will irritate the mucous mem- 
brane of the entire respiratory tract, fi^equently resulting in 
an active congestion and later in inflammation of the mucous 
membrane which favors the growth and development of the 
infection which is always present. 

(d) Acute bronchitis develops frequently as a secondary 
disease following specific infections (distemper, etc.). The 
specific infection reduces the normal resistance of the mucous 
membrane thus allowing the secondary infection (staphylo- 
coccus, streptococcus) to develop rapidly and produce the 
disease. 

(e) Parasitic. In severe infestations of the Uncinaria 
canina, the larval form of this parasite, in its migrations 
through the body, often burrows along or through the walls 
of the bronchi and trachea producing an inflammation of the 
mucous membrane and the underlying tissues. (See Unci- 
nariasis.) 

(/) Tracheitis and acute bronchitis are often consecutive 
to inflammations of the nasal passages, larynx and pharynx. 
The infection is carried to the trachea and bronchi by inhala- 
tion where it develops, producing the inflammation. 

(g) Other diseases (renal afl'ections, endocarditis, diabetes, 
carcinomas and sarcoma, valvular insufficiency) produce a 
disturbance of the heart action, enfeeblement of the vaso- 
motor nerve and reduce the resistance of the mucous mem- 
brane. 

It is quite evident that acute tracheitis and bronchitis 



36 DISEASES OF THE TRACHEA 

in most cases develop from bacteria found normally on the 
mucous membrane. 

Pathology.— The pathological changes that are Hable to 
be found in acute tracheitis and bronchitis are somewhat 
diverse, the details of the process being considerably modified 
by the anatomical peculiarities of the parts affected and the 
different causes that affect them. The inflammation may 
be restricted to the bronchial structure but is frequently 
associated with other and more serious disturbances. The 
condition is usually bilateral, although certain parts are 
affected more than others. Tracheitis and bronchitis are 
often associated T\ith lar^Tigitis, peribronchitis and broncho- 
pneumonia. 

Symptoms.— Cow^A.— This is the most important symptom 
and is never absent, although it may be slight or very severe 
and loud, occiuring as isolated coughs succeeding eacfi other 
Tvith greater or less frequency, or in parox^'sms which often 
end in nausea or vomiting. The cough is dry and harsh in 
the early stages, later becoming moist as the inflamed mucous 
membranes produce an increased secretion. Paroxysms of 
coughing are often induced by excitement (^'isits of the owner, 
etc.), exposure to cold, moist air, pressure over the lower part 
of the trachea or by percussion over the sides of the chest. 
The object of the cough is to expel the accumulated discharge 
from the air passages. 

Discharge.— Thi^ is always present except in the early 
stages; it is mucous at first, becoming mucopurulent or puru- 
lent as the disease progresses. In small animals the discharge 
is expelled from the trachea and bronchi directly into the 
mouth and swallowed. Therefore it is impossible to deter- 
mine the amount and character, and it becomes necessary 
to observe the animal while coughing to ascertain the condi- 
tion of the discharge. 

Dyspnea.— The degree of dyspnea depends on the obstruc- 
tion of the free movement of air through the bronchial tubes. 
In mild cases it may not be noticed but in other cases, in 
which the calibre of the bronchi is materially decreased by 
the swelling of the mucous membrane, it may be quite dis- 
tressing. 



ACUTE TRACHEITIS AND BRONCHITIS 37 

General Symptoms.--Modersite temperature (rise of l°-2°), 
pulse quickened, partial loss of appetite and increased thirst. 
In severe cases, there is complete loss of appetite, high tem- 
perature (1G4°-105°) and general depression. On percussion 
nothing abnormal is noted, except in cases where the bron- 
chioli are affected and filled with an exudate where there may 
be local areas of dulness. 

Auscultation.— In mild cases the vesicular sound is in- 
creased. In well marked cases the respiratory sounds are 
harsh with some lengthening of expiration. Absence of sound 
may be found when obstruction of the bronchi or collapse 
of lobules occurs. Sibilant and sonorous sounds are t^qpical 
signs which are due to the irregular narrowing of the calibre 
of the large and small bronchi respectively. As the secretion 
becomes more liquid, moist rales are produced in the tubes 
due to the liquid being driven back and forth by the air 
currents. The volume of the rale is in proportion to the size 
of the tube in which it originates. Large, moist, bubbling 
rales are produced in the large bronchi, and the small, moist 
rales arise in the smaller tubes. 

Diagnosis.— From the character of the cough, auscultation 
and general symptoms one may readily detect the presence 
of acute tracheitis and bronchitis. Careful examination of 
the animal should be made, however, to determine if the 
disease is primary or secondary. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in most primary cases; when secon- 
dary to other diseases the prognosis is not so favorable. In 
primary cases, the course is usually eight to fourteen days; 
in secondary it is much longer. 

Treatment.— //?/^^e7^^c.— The animal must be kept in a 
warm place (70° F.) having good ventilation but direct 
currents of cold air must not reach it. 

Dietetic— Light, soft or liquid foods should be used (milk, 
extract of beef, soups or small amounts of raw or cooked 
beef). In cases where the animal will not eat, it should bo 
given warm milk to which raw eggs have been added. 

Medical.— ¥oT the appetite use compound tincture of 
gentian (0.8-2.0) or tincture of nux vomica (0.3-0.() droi)s). 
In the early stages while the cough is dry and harsh, 



38 DISEASES OF THE TRACHEA 

expectorant formulae should be used to stimulate the secre- 
tion of the mticous membrane, as 

R — Ammonii chloridi 5.0 

Extract, glycyrrhizse 10.0 

Aquae 150.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give a teaspoonful three times a day. 

or 

R — Apomorphini hydro chlorati 0.02 

Acidi hj-drochlorati 1 . 00 

Aquse distillata 150.00 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give a teaspoonful four times a day. 

AMien severe cough is present, sedatives should be given 
to reduce the irritation to the nerve endings in the mucous 
membrane, in the following formula: 

I^ — Morphini stilphatis 0.2 

Aquse amygdalae amarse 20.0 

Aquse 150.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful every three hours. 

Counterirritants (oil of mustard and glycerin 1-20) may be 
applied to the walls of the thorax to stimulate the enervation 
and circtilation in the trachea and bronchi. 

Inhalations of antiseptics and stimidants (oil of tiu-pen- 
tine, oil of tar, creolin, etc.) may be used. These are best 
administered by adding them to hot water and allowing the 
animal to inhale the vapor. 

In the treatment of this disease the predisposing causes 
should be considered more than the infection as antiseptics 
cannot be applied to produce thorough antiseptic action on 
the mucous membrane. 



BRONCHIAL CATARRH OF BIRDS. 

Bronchitis. 

Definition.— An acute or chronic inflammatory condition 
of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes. 



BRONCHIAL CATARRH OF BIRDS 39 

Etiology.— This often occurs from the extension of inflam- 
mation of the nasal passages, the larynx and trachea. Expos- 
ure to dampness, cold draughts of air and to sudden and 
extreme changes of temperature are predisposing causes. 
Specific infections (infectious nasal catarrh, tuberculosis); 
parasites (Syngamus trachealis) ; fungi (aspergillus) are all 
exciting causes and may produce an extensive and severe 
bronchitis. 

Symptoms.— The birds become somewhat stupid, lose appe- 
tite, show accelerated respirations and cough. Later the 
symptoms grow more pronounced inducing severe dyspnea, 
the mouth frequently held open to facilitate respiration. 

Auscultation reveals a blowing or whistling sound in the 
bronchi, which, later, as the secretions accumulate, is 
bubbling or rattling. 

Diagnosis.— This is made by the dyspnea, cough, stupidity 
of the patient, and the course of the disease. 

Prognosis.— Favorable unless due to specific infection or 
parasites. 

TTea.tmeiit.— Hygienic— l\eep the birds in a warm place 
which is well ventilated and free from cold draughts. 

Dietetic— Give soft and nutritious food (stale bread and 
milk, oatmeal and milk, meat scraps) . 

Medical.— Inhslsitions of vapors from boiling water con- 
taining sodium bicarbonate (2 per cent.), creolin (2 per cent.) 
or carbolic acid (3 per cent.). 

To stimulate the bronchial secretions use the following: 

I^ — Ammonii chloridi 0.5 

Mellis 0.5 

Aquae feniculi 50.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful three to four times daily. 

As a laxative and antiseptic: 

I^— Olei terebinthinse 0.40 

Olei ricini 2 . 00 

Misce et fiat solutio. 
Sig. — Give at once and repeat every four to six hours until a laxative 
action is produced. 



40 DISEASES OF THE TRACHEA 

In treating a large number of birds encourage the appetite 
with stomachic tonics (iron sulphate) in the food and drink- 
ing water. 

MYCOTIC PNEUMONIA. 

Aspergillosis. 

Definition.— A mycotic disease affecting primarily the 
respiratory passages, often producing bronchitis and pneu- 
monia. 

Etiology.— The exciting causes are species of fungi belonging 
to the genus Aspergillus. These fungi exist abundantly in 
nature upon all kinds of grain especially during the warm, 
moist weather. The spores are inhaled with dust or taken 
with food and lodge on the mucous membrane where they 
rapidly develop into the fungus, which causes the irritation. 
The most common species in the domestic birds are the 
Aspergillus fumigatus, A. nigrescens, A. glaucus and the 
A. candidus. 

Other species are rarely found in the respiratory tract of 
birds. The predispwDsing factors are bronchitis, affections 
of the lungs, delicate breeds of birds, or delicate and weak 
individuals. 

Pathology.— (a) On the mucous membrane of the trachea 
and bronchi is found a thick membranous mass which bears 
upon its surface a growth of the fungus. These masses are 
at first soft but become firmer with age and are yellowish or 
greenish in color, with some resemblance to a fibrinopurulent 
exudate. They adhere firmly to the mucous membrane 
which is thickened and congested. These growths may 
obstruct the air cells and the smaller bronchi, often being 
found as caseous or even calcareous nodules, somewhat 
resembling tuberculosis. The nodules vary in size from 
that of a pinhead to a pea and may involve the greater part 
of the lung tissue. Nodules may also be found in the liver, 
intestines, the mesenteric glands or other organs. In very 
acute cases the lungs may show simply an acute inflammation 
with secondary conditions in other organs. 



MYCOTIC PNEUMONIA 41 

{h) Microscopic examination reveals the spores or fila- 
ments of the fungus in most of the lesions, either acute or 
chronic. 

Symptoms.— In the very early stages no symptoms are 
noted, and it is only after the disease has progressed suffici- 
ently to cause obstruction or irritation to the tissues that 
symptoms are manifested. The affected birds become weak 
and depressed, do not follow the flock; the plumage is rough. 
Respirations are accelerated and during expiration are accom- 
panied by a rattling or snoring sound. The mouth is held 
open to facilitate breathing. The temperature is elevated, 
the appetite diminished and thirst increased. There is often 
a greenish-yellow discharge from the nasal passages. The 
birds soon become emaciated, a severe diarrhea develops, and 
death results from exhaustion. 

Diagnosis.— Made by finding the spores or fungi by a 
microscopical examination of scrapings taken from the 
affected parts. 

Prognosis.— Very unfavorable. 

Treatment.— ^2/9'^'g^^'c.— Keep the affected birds in a warm, 
well ventilated place. 

Dietetic— Yeed concentrated nutritious food. 

Medical.— TiesLtment is unsatisfactory in well established 
cases. Inhalations of antiseptics as tar or turpentine are 
indicated. These substances may be volatilized with boiling 
water or the tar by placing it on a hot surface. The affected 
birds are allowed to inhale the fumes for a half hour every 
day. Potassium iodid (.05-0.1 per bird daily) is also indi- 
cated; sulphate of iron (4.0 to 1000.0) may be used in the 
drinking water. 

Prevention.— The healthy birds should be separated from 
the sick ones and the premises disinfected (lime or carbolic 
acid 5 per cent.). The straw and grain should be cleaned 
before given to the birds, as dust is the common carrier of 
the fungus. Successful disinfection cannot be attained as 
the spores occur widely distributed in nature. Cleaning 
of the straw and grain as suggested assists in eliminating the 
fungus. 



42 DISEASES OF THE TRACHEA 

ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE TRACHEA AND BRONCHIAL 

TUBES. 

Syngamosis. Gapes in Chickens. 

Definition.— This is a condition due to the Syngamus 
tracheahs found most commonly in the trachea and bronchi 
of birds. 

Etiology.— The only cause is the parasite Syngamus 
trachealis, genus Syngamus. This is a small, round worm, 
red in color, and the male is about 5 mm. long and the female 
5 to 20 mm. A remarkable feature of these worms is per- 
manent copulation, which is so intimate that the males 
cannot be separated from the females without tearing their 
integuments. This arrangement gives the worms a forked 
or Y appearance. 

They attach themselves to the mucous membrane of the 
trachea and larger bronchi and suck the blood. By so doing 
they produce considerable irritation. The ova of the syn- 
gamus are not laid but pass from the body of the female 
which suffers rupture and usually occurs after death. 
These ova are hatched in from one to six weeks according to 
the temperature on damp ground or in water. The embryo 
does not need an intermediate host in order to become trans- 
formed into an adult worm. Birds ingest the embryos along 
with food or water or the adult worm coughed up by an 
affected bird may be swallowed; earth worms in infested 
yards frequently have embryos in their intestinal tract and 
when these are swallowed the embryos are liberated. They 
then burrow out through the walls of the esophagus and 
stomach and migrate through the tissues or possibly via the 
blood stream until they reach the lungs and trachea. It has 
been shown that fully developed parasites can be found in 
the trachea twelve days after feeding the ova to healthy 
birds. 

Symptoms.— This disease is seen most frequently in young 
birds of from one to four weeks old, and is especially common 
in chicks. They have a whistling cough, and the most 
seriously affected open the beak at the same time stretching 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE TRACHEA 43 

the neck by a peculiar movement (gaping) in order to facili- 
tate inspiration. The general signs are loss of appetite, 
dulness, wings pendant and all evidence of cachexia. Death 
results from exhaustion or asphyxiation. 

Diagnasis.— The peculiar gaping movement at each inspira- 
tion, sneezing, and distressed breathing as from obstruction 
in the trachea. Finding the worms in the trachea or eggs in 
the discharge from the mouth is conclusive. 

Prognosis.— Unfavorable, but depends upon the number 
of parasites present in the trachea. A spontaneous recovery 
is rare, especially in young birds. 

Treatment.— All of the young birds should be treated as 
soon as the disease is noticed. As much garlic as they can 
be made to eat when chopped fine and mixed with other food, 
or powdered asafetida (0.25 per head daily) may be used. 
The volatile part of the garlic or the asafetida is eliminated 
with the expired air and acts as a toxicant to the parasites 
in the trachea. Individuals may be treated by intratracheal 
injections of sodium salicylate (5 per cent.) using 1 c.c. per 
bird and injected with a medicine dropper directly into the 
trachea. This loosens the worms and they can be coughed 
out. In cases of imminent asphyxia the worms may be with- 
drawn by the aid of a feather, having the barbules all removed 
except at the end. Or a horsehair folded and twisted so as to 
form a small loop may be used. It is introduced into the 
trachea through the open mouth and turned round and 
round, the object being to loosen the worms. They may be 
then withdrawn with the feather or coughed out. This 
method of ridding the chick of the parasite is dangerous and 
insufficient, and can remove only those parasites which are 
slightly attached and in the upper part of the trachea. 

Prevention*— Separate the sick birds from the healthy and 
clean up all coops, pens and runways, drinking troughs, etc. 
and disinfect with carbolic acid (5 per cent.). Lime sprinkled 
freely throughout the house and in the coops will aid in 
keeping them clean. Burn all dead birds and provide clean 
water and food. 



44 DISEASES OF THE TRACHEA 

CHRONIC TRACHEITIS AND BRONCHITIS. 

Definition.— This is a chronic inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the trachea and bronchial tubes. 

Etiology.— Chronic tracheitis and bronchitis may occur 
independently or secondary to some other disease. It may 
originate from any of the causes of acute tracheitis and 
bronchitis, especially when their action is persistent or fre- 
quently repeated. The common causes are: 

(a) Continued inhalation of irritating dust, dirt, etc. 

(6) Exposure to cold, damp air (as keeping animals in 
cold, damp basements having poor ventilation). 

(c) Parasitic. In severe infestations with Ankylostoma 
canina, when the animal is being constantly reinfested, the 
passage of the larvse through the tracheal and bronchial 
structure produces a chronic irritation. (See Uncinariasis.) 
Chronic tracheitis and bronchitis often result from the 
gradual extension of the inflammatory process from the 
other parts (laryngitis, pharyngitis, etc.). Many cases are 
secondary to special diseases such as distemper, carcinoma, 
sarcoma, rachitis and acute valvular insufficiency. 

Pathology.— Chronic tracheitis and bronchitis are practi- 
cally always purulent, and while in most particulars it 
closely resembles the acute form, it differs from it in the 
presence of a more deeply penetrating inflammation and in 
the production of fibrous tissue. The mucous membrane 
is swollen, reddened, infiltrated, and covered with purulent 
secretion. The walls of the bronchi are hypertrophic. Not 
infrequently the mucosa is thrown into little polypoid excres- 
cences, due partly to contraction and partly to fibrous prolif- 
eration. The walls of the bronchi become, thickened and 
there is often a fibrous peribronchitis, which in time may 
lead to induration of the lungs. 

Symptoms.— This condition is most common in old animals 
where it frequently interferes with respiration producing 
so-called asthma. The most prominent symptom of this dis- 
ease is the cough. It is usually moist, varying in intensity, 
depending upon the amount of secretion and extent of mucous 
membrane involved. Excitement frequently produces par- 



CHRONIC TRACHEITIS AND BRONCHITIS 45 

oxysms of coughing which are often attended by severe 
nausea and vomiting. In cases secondary to other diseases 
the cough is modified becoming short, isolated and more 
spasmodic. This is particularly so in chronic bronchitis due 
to the parasite, Uncinaria canina, and to valvular insuf- 
ficiency of the heart. The discharge is mucopurulent in 
character, and is usually swallowed, but during paroxysms 
of coughing some of it mixed with mucus will be expelled 
from the mouth. In severe cases when the discharge is 
decomposed by putrefaction organisms there is a very offen- 
sive odor given off with the exhaled air. 

Dyspnea.— This is always present to some extent; in old 
animals it is well marked. The dyspnea results from the 
emphysema and interstitial pulmonary fibrosis which always 
develops, and, when secretion is present in large amounts, 
the dyspnea is increased accordingly, producing asthmatic 
conditions. On auscultation there are sibilant or there may 
be moist rales, depending on the condition of the membranes 
and the character and quantity of the secretion. Vesicular 
sounds are increased. Percussion usually gives negative 
results, and only in the more severe cases are the general 
symptoms of emaciation, loss of appetite, etc., noted. 

Diagnosis.— The long continued course of the disease, the 
age of the animal, the absence of general symptoms in most 
cases and the characteristic cough are indicative. 

Prognosis. — In most cases of chronic tracheitis and bron- 
chitis the prognosis should be considered unfavorable as 
complete recovery seldom takes place. During the warm, 
dry months the symptoms often subside only to reappear 
with the return of the cold, damp weather. 

Treatment.— Symptomatic treatment can be used to alle- 
viate the cough and to modify the secretions. The following 
formulae may be used: 

IJ — Apomorphinse hydrochlorati 0.03 

Syrupus pruni virginianse 60.00 

Syrupus picis liquidse 120.00 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful three times daily. 

I^ — Acidi benzoici • 0.4 

Sacchari albae 4.0 

Misce et fiat pulvis No. XX. 

Sig. — Give a powder morning and evening. 



46 DISEASES OF THE TRACHEA 

In general debilitated conditions tonics and alteratives 
should be used as in the following formula: 

I^ — Ferri et quinini citratis 10.0 

Syrupi 90.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful once daily. 

or 

!^ — Tincture nuces vomicae . 7.0 

Tincture gentianiae 10.0 

Aquae 60.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful once daily. 

Daily inhalations of medicated vapors (turpentine, creolin, 
etc.) are valuable to stimulate the secretions and assist in 
their removal. 



CHAPTER IV. 

DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 

Examination.— The following things are essential for a 
complete and thorough examination: 

1. The number and character of the respiratory movements. 

2. The size, shape and sensitiveness of the thorax. 

3. Auscultation. 

4. Percussion. 

1. Respiration.— In small animals the number of respira- 
tory movements normally varies greatly. The average 
number while at rest is 12-24. This is easily and quickly 
increased by excitement and exercise until they may reach 
60-90 per minute. During warm weather even while at rest 
the respirations are greatly accelerated, owing to the skin 
glands not being active enough to assist in the respiratory 
function. In order to overcome this physiological condi- 
tion the animal breathes forcibly through the mouth, and the 
frequency of respirations is increased. Respiratory move- 
ments are also increased in the following diseased conditions : 
Catarrhal pneumonia, foreign body pneumonia, chronic 
interstitial pneumonia, usually when the temperature is 
elevated, in laryngitis, acute and chronic bronchitis, hydro- 
thorax, pleurodynia, ascites, peritonitis, vahoilar insuffi- 
ciencies, eclampsia and during the early stages of some poi- 
sonings. A lessening in the number of respirations is found 
in narcotic poisoning, diseases of the brain and its membranes 
and in the later stages of infectious diseases, septicemia and 
pyemia. 

2. The Thorax.— In shape both sides of the chest wall 
should be symmetrical. Depression on one side indicates 
fractured ribs or pleurodynia. Distention of the thorax is 
seen in hydro thorax, and in fluid accumulations (ascites), 
tumors or when the stomach is distended, causing pressure 
against the diaphragm. 

3. Auscultation is practised by using the phonendoscope 
or by covering the thoracic wall with a piece of cloth against 



48 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 

which the ear is placed. With the phonendoscope the sounds 
are made more audible and distinct. 

The normal sounds of the lungs are: (a) The vesicular; 
(b) bronchial, and (c) the expiratory, (a) The vesicular sound 
normally is a soft, regular, blowing sound caused by the air 
passing into the alveoli and distending them. It is most dis- 
tinct in emaciated animals and where the lung tissue is in close 
contact with the thoracic walls. It is normally increased by 
excitement or exercise and is always more distinct in puppies 
than in older dogs. The vesicular sound is modified in the 
following pathological conditions: Increased in dyspnea in 
the healthy portion of the lung, in tracheitis and in bronchitis'; 
decreased in stenosis of the upper air passages; in certain 
stages of catarrhal pneumonia; emphysema of the lungs; 
hydro thorax; swelling and thickening of the skin and muscles 
of the thorax and in certain poisonings. 

(b) Bronchial respiratory sounds are best recognized by 
placing the phonendoscope directly over the trachea at its 
entrance to the chest. These sounds are normal in the larynx 
and trachea, but their appearance in the thorax is significant 
of disease. Bronchial respiratory sounds are increased by 
secretions in the smaller bronchi, as in catarrhal pneumonia; 
compression of the lungs by pleuritic exudate; laryngitis, 
tracheitis and bronchitis. 

Irregular bronchial sounds are caused by the secretions 
being carried to and fro by the passage of the air. They are 
dry (wheezing) where there is a small quantity of mucus 
adherent to the mucous membrane. These sounds (wheezing) 
occur mostly in the smaller bronchi, while the moist, bubbling 
rales (sonorous) emanate from the larger bronchi where they 
are produced by the collection of secretions. Cavities in the 
lungs also produce them. Bronchial sounds are important 
in determining the existence, extent and character of trache- 
itis and bronchitis. When sibilant (wheezing) sounds are 
prominent it indicates that the infection extends into the 
bronchioli. 

(c) Expiratory sounds are produced by the rapid expulsion 
of air from the lungs, and in normal conditions are hardly 
perceptible, except in puppies. This sound is increased by 



CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS 49 

excitement, exercise, etc. In some diseases it is varied in 
tone, becoming louder and more prolonged. 

4. Percussion.— This is performed by the use of the per- 
cussion hammer and pleximeter or by one hand placed 
against the chest wall and tapped with the fingers of the 
other hand. The normal sounds of a healthy lung are heard 
all over the thorax, the volume of sound depending on the 
thickness of the lung at the particular part being examined. 
The normal sound is clear, loud and resonant as distinguished 
from the tympanitic, dull or solid sound of disease. Tym- 
panitic sounds are heard in the following conditions: (a) 
Emphysema, (b) pneumothorax, (c) cavities in the lungs, 
(d) in collapse of the pulmonary tissue from a retraction of 
the lungs in the presence of pleuritic exudates. The col- 
lapsed lung floats upon the surface of the fluid above the line 
of dulness and on percussion emits a tympanitic sound, (e) 
In the first and last stages of pneumonias. Dull or flat 
sounds are heard over hepatized areas of the lungs, chronic 
interstitial pneumonia; tumors in the lungs, and hydro- 
thorax. 

CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. 

Hyperemia of the Lungs. 

Definition.— An excessive or abnormal accumulation of 
blood in the lungs. Hyperemia may be either active or 
passive. 

Active Congestion.— Etiology.— It is found in the early 
stages of all inflammatory conditions of the lungs and pleura. 
Occasionally it may be due to inhalations of irritating gases, 
smoke, acid fumes, etc., or may result from cold. 

Pathology.— The lungs are dark red in color; on cross- 
section blood escapes from the cut surface. The tissue will 
float in water. 

Symptoms.— Active congestion of the lungs is characterized 
by its sudden onset, beginning as a rule with a chill and 
rapidly developing dyspnea accomi)anied by a short, dry 
cough and a rapid, full pulse. The animal often assumes a 
sitting posture with elbows held outwardly, ribs elevated 
4 



50 DISEASES OF THE LUXGS 

and cheeks inflated at each expiration. The temperature 
may rise to 103°-104° F., possibly higher, but it does not 
persist, faUing by crisis in three or four days. Ch\-ing to the 
aeration of the huigs being diminished the visible mucous 
membranes become cyanotic. On auscultation the respira- 
tory sounds will be increased, harsh and rough, and rales of 
various kinds may be heard. At the base of the lung fine 
crepitant or subcrepitant rales may be distinctly audible, 
while over other parts sibilant or sonorous rales may be heard. 
Percussion reveals only slight dulness. 

Diagnosis.— Active congestion of the lungs in the beginning 
possesses no distinctive characteristics, but resembles broncho- 
pneumonia. As it progresses it will be readily distinguished 
from this condition by the absence of hepatization and the 
occurrence of the crisis on the fourth or fifth day. 

Prognosis.— Usually favorable but in some cases pulmonary 
edema with fatal results, or pneumonia may dcA'elop. The 
affection is always to be looked upon as serious and one 
demanding active treatment. 

Treatment.— //z/f/zV^zzc— The animal must be kept in a warm 
place and it is important that it be well ventilated. 

Dietetic— Gixe warm liquid foods (milk, beef tea, soups, 
etc.). 

Medical.— yiagiiesmm sulphate (8.0-10.0 in cold water) 
should be used as a hydragogue purgative. To equalize the 
circulation tincture of aconite (0.01-0.1) or veratrum viride 
(0.1-0.2) is beneficial and can be given every three to five 
hours if necessary. Oil of mustard and glycerin (1-20) can 
be applied to the walls of the thorax as a count erirritant. 
When the initial intensity of the symptoms yields, then a 
stimulating expectorant as ammonium chlorid should be used 
as follows: 

I^ — Ammonii chloridi 5.0 

Extract, glycyrrhizse 10.0 

Aquse 150.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give a teaspoonful three times a day. 

Passive Congestion.— Etiology.— This results from obstruc- 
tion to the free outflow of the blood from the lungs to the 



CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS 51 

heart. It is nearly always due to the lack of force or faulty 
action of the heart, as stenosis or insufficiency of the mitral 
valve, dilation of the right ventricle, or fatty degeneration. 
It may also be caused by pressure on the pulmonary veins 
by tumors, etc. In the latter stages of long continued dis- 
eases or in any febrile condition when the heart action is 
slowed, the blood gravitates to the lower part of the lung 
producing a hypostatic congestion. 

Pathology.— The lung is somewhat enlarged, its consistency 
increased, of a dark red color, and on section venous blood 
escapes. When the condition has persisted for a long time, 
the lung becomes brown, dense and firm, due to a deposit 
of blood pigment and a proliferation of fibrous tissue in the 
septa of the lung, a condition known as brown induration. 

Symptoms. — Dyspnea and a short, hard and usually dry 
cough which has a tendency to become worse with exercise 
or excitement. The bronchial discharge varies in amount 
and in some cases may contain blood. Auscultation reveals 
rales. On percussion only slight dulness may be noted. 
The membranes are cyanotic. 

Diagnosis.— The dyspnea, cyanosis, characteristic cough 
and shallow respirations without rise of temperature are 
indicative. 

Prognosis.— Unfavorable, depending upon the cause and 
extent. 

Treatment.— In the treatment of passive congestion of the 
lungs, medicinal agents directed against the causative cardiac 
aftection are the ones which will most favorably influence 
the pulmonary condition. As a heart stimulant the following 
formula gives good results: 

I^ — Extract! digitalis fluidi 1.0 

Syrupus pruni virginianse 60.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig.— Give one teaspoonful once a day. 

In addition to this formula strychnin sulphate (0.001 
daily) may be used as a general stimulant. To relieve the 
cough when severe use: 

I^ — Morphini sulphatis 0.1 

Aquae amygdalse amarae 30.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give a teaspoonful twice daily. 



52 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 

If the animal's condition will permit the use of a hydra- 
gogue purgative, magnesium sulphate (8.0-10.0) is useful to 
modify the circulation and remove fluid from it. This dose 
may be repeated in twelve hours if sufficient action has not 
taken place. 

PULMONARY EDEMA. 

Edema of the Lungs. 

Definition.— An effusion of serous fluid into the alveoli and 
interstitial tissue of the lungs. 

Etiology.— Diseases of the heart (valvular insufficiency, 
etc.) are the most frequent predisposing causes of pulmonary 
edema, although it occurs as a secondary condition to chronic 
pulmonary congestion, nephritis, cachexia, anemia and infec- 
tious diseases (distemper, etc.). In the latter stages of dis- 
temper pulmonary edema frequently develops when it is 
often the immediate cause of death. Edema of the lungs 
occasionally follows the administration of drugs (pilocarpin, 
etc.) . 

Pathology.— The lung is heavier and firmer than normal, 
pale in color and pits on pressure. When incised a thin 
serous fluid escapes. This may be clear or if there is conges- 
tion present it may be stained mth blood. Crepitation is 
always lessened and small patches may be entirely airless. 
The bronchi contain a frothy fluid. 

Symptoms.— The sjTuptoms develop rapidly except in 
those cases occurring as the terminal event in exhaustive 
diseases in which the course is more gradual and the symp- 
toms less pronounced. Severe dyspnea, which becomes 
worse as the exudate accumulates is an important sjonptom. 
The pulse is weak and small, the visible mucous membranes 
are cyanotic and the extremities cold. A short, feeble cough 
often accompanies the condition. The temperature is sub- 
normal. There may be a frothy nasal discharge. Upon 
auscultation various kinds of rales (fine, course or bubbling) 
will be heard. Percussion reveals diminished normal reso- 
nance with occasional small areas of tympany, especially over 
the posterior part of the lungs. 



BRONCHOPNEUMONIA 53 

Diagnosis.— The sudden onset, severe dyspnea and the 
absence of temperature, accompanied by moist, bubbling 
rales on auscultation are indicative. 

Prognosis.— Always unfavorable, depending upon the cause. 
Recovery may occur in mild acute cases. 

Treatment.— Treatment must be directed first to relieve 
the edema which threatens the life of the animal, and sec- 
ondarily to overcome the cause. For the first purpose use 
counterirritation to the walls of the thorax, oil of mustard 
and glycerin (1-20) or Priesnitz compress (applied hot) ; also 
strychnin sulphate (0.001 subcutaneously) as a heart stimu- 
lant. Subcutaneous injections of ether (0.8), or camphor 
(0.1) in ether (0.8) are often useful as prompt stimulants. 
Atropin (0.002) is of value as a heart stimulant and is espe- 
cially useful in cases of edema due to pilocarpin, being a 
physiological antidote. 

In the treatment for the removal of the cause digitalis 
fluidextract (0.1) is most valuable to regulate the heart 
action. Hydragogue purgation (magnesium sulphate 8.0- 
12.0) will remove fluid from the blood which tends to reduce 
the exudation of serum into the lungs ; also the use of a diuretic 
(oil of juniper 0.3-0.5) for the same purpose in cases of renal 
disease. 

BRONCHOPNEUMONIA. 

Catarrhal Pneumonia. 

Definition.— This is an affection of the lungs in which the 
usual sequence of events is, that an inflammation of the 
smaller bronchioles in scattered areas is succeeded by the 
involvement of anatomically related or contiguous vesicles. 

Etiology. — (a) The inhalation of foreign material in the 
form of small particles of dirt, dust, etc., which irritates the 
mucous membrane and modifies the secretions, favors the 
development of infection and leads to inflammation of the 
bronchioli and alveoli. 

(6) Irritating chemicals and gases when inhaled produce 
an active congestion and inflammation of the lungs. How- 
ever, in most cases when inhaled in large quantities they act 



54 DISEASES OF THE LUXGS 

as irritants to the mucous membrane and thus favor- the 
development of infection which leads to bronchopneumonia. 

(c) Cold, damp, changeable weather is a very important 
predisposing factor inasmuch as chilling the surface of the 
animal's body modifies the circulation and the secretions of 
the mucous membrane, reducing its resistance, as well as the 
general resistance of the body. This favors the gro^i;h of 
infection which may be already present. The effect of cold, 
damp weather is well shown by the greater incidence of the 
disease in the ^sinter and spring months. Young puppies, 
especially, are quite frequently affected T^-ith bronchopneu- 
monia when kept in cold, damp and poorly ventilated kennels. 

(d) Bronchopneumonia is frequently secondary to specific 
infections (distemper, etc.) which reduces the general as well 
as the local resistance. 

(e) Inflammation of other parts of the respiratory system 
may produce bronchopneumonia by an extension of the 
inflammation. This is especially true of acute bronchitis 
which by extension at first produces a capillary bronchitis 
and later a bronchopneumonia. 

(/) During the course of some diseases (nephritis, endo- 
carditis, diabetes, valvular insufficiencies, sarcomas and 
carcinomas), the heart action is disturbed, the vasomotor 
nerve is enfeebled, both of which reduce the resistance to 
infection. Young puppies infested with parasites, which 
interfere with the general nutrition, frequently develop 
bronchopneumonia from the reduced resistance to infection. 

(g) Infectious material from the mouth and the nasal 
passages which reach the bronchial tubes and alveoli will 
produce a bronchopneumonia. 

Possibly in no other disease do lessened powers of resist- 
ance of the animal, from whatever cause, play such an impor- 
tant part in determining the inception. 

Pathology.— The process in bronchopneumonia is associated 
with bronchitis, and indeed almost always starts ^'ith an 
inflammation of the smaller bronchioles, which then spreads 
to the adjacent alveoli. The exudate is at first serous and 
contains a few erythrocAl:es, but more numerous white cells. 
There is also a large number of mononuclear cells with clear 



BRONCHOPNEUMONIA 55 

protoplasm, which are swollen desquamated epithelial cells 
from the alveolar walls. The disease usually affects both 
lungs, but may involve only one or even a single lobe or a 
portion thereof. The affected organ is heavier than normal, 
somewhat congested, and in its substance can be felt areas 
of increased consistence. These are friable, of a reddish- 
gray, gray or grayish-yellow color, contrasting somewhat 
with the rest of the lung. 

On pressure a turbid fluid can be expressed, in which can 
be seen small particles of a gray, grayish-yellow, or purulent 
appearance. From the sporadic distribution of the consoli- 
dated areas, the term " splenization" has been given to the 
condition. On section of the lung, both red and gray stages 
are recognized. The smaller bronchi and bronchioli show 
inflammation and are filled with exudate. In the alveolar 
spaces the exudate consists mainly of serum, a few red cells, 
abundant leukocytes and desquamated cells. The latter fre- 
quently contain pigment and bacteria. In the form due to 
inhalation of infective material, or foreign bodies, the exudate 
is usually purulent. Such a condition leads to a diffuse puru- 
lent infiltration of the lungs and abscess formation. Occa- 
sionally gangrene of some of the lung tissue will be noted. 
This is especially true in weak and debilitated animals with 
general circulatory disturbance. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms of primary bronchopneumonia 
develop rapidly, usually beginning with a chill and the animal 
appears depressed and restless. The temperature is high 
(104°-105° F.) and falls by crisis. Dyspnea is pronounced, 
the respirations being short, shallow and very rapid, inflating 
the cheeks at each expiration. A short painful cough is 
noticed and the pulse is accelerated (180-200). On auscul- 
tation the sounds are mostly those of an acute bronchitis 
(impairment of the vesicular murmur, moist sibilant or 
sonorous rales) . On percussion dulness is noted where there 
is a large area of consolidation, while in cases where the con- 
solidated areas are scattered compensatory emphysema may 
overcome the dulness. In the secondary forms following 
other diseases (bronchitis, distemper, etc.) the onset is loss 
severe and the symptoms less pronounced. The cough and 



56 DISEASES OF THE LVXGS 

high temperature may be absent, but if temperature be 
present it falls by lysis. Dyspnea is usually seen indicating 
a lack of aeration of the lungs. In the course of this secon- 
dary bronchopneumonia the symptoms are not well marked 
and depend largely upon the primary disease. 

Diagnosis.— This is made in the primary form by the sudden 
onset with severe dyspnea, cough and high temperature, 
while in the secondary form the symptoms, not being char- 
acteristic, the diagnosis is more difficult, depending mostly 
upon the dyspnea with its attending conditions. 

Prognosis.— Unfavorable. In the primary form the prog- 
nosis is determined by the extent of the inflammatory process 
in the lungs, while in the secondary form it depends upon the 
causative disease, and as this is usually distemper the mor- 
tality is high. 

TieSitmeTit. — Hygienic— The animal should be kept in a 
warm, well ventilated room free from cold draughts. 

Dietetic— The animal's strength should be sustained by the 
use of appetizing foods (milk, beef extract, etc.^i given warm 
in small quantities every few hours. During convalescence 
small amounts of lean meat or other nutritious food mav be 
given 3 or 4 times a day. 

Medical.— At the onset a purgative should be given 
(calomel 0.03 and sodium bicarbonate O.b) to produce free 
purgation and stimulate the activity of the kidneys. Expec- 
torants are useful to modify and aid in expelling the discharge 
from the bronchial tubes. 

R — Ammonii chloridi 10.0 

Extract, glycyrrhizae 20.0 

Aquae 150.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful four times daily. 

Counterirritants to the walls of the thorax in the form 
of oil of mustard and glycerin (1-20) or Priesnitz compress 
applied hot around the chest. The heart action should be 
stimulated in severe cases by the use of digitalis fluid-extract 
(O.OS-0.1) and for general stimulation use strychnin (0.001). 
Inhalations of medicated vapors (turpentine, oil of tar, 
creolin in hot water) are useful to stimulate the mucous 
membrane and to produce antiseptic action. 



CIRRHOSIS OF THE LUNGS 57 

CIRRHOSIS OF THE LUNGS. 

Chronic Interstitial Pneumonia. 

Definition.— A chronic inflammatory condition of the lungs 
characterized by an increase in the interstitial tissue and 
fibroid collections in the alveoli. 

Etiology. — (a) Inhalation of particles of dust when con- 
tinued for a long period produces fibrosis of the lungs, due 
to the chronic irritation of the foreign material in the tissues. 
The degree depends upon the amount and character of the 
inhaled material. 

(b) Pressure upon the lungs by neighboring structures, as 
new growths and diverticula of the esophagus, tumors in 
the lung substance, all of which produce a reactive inflamma- 
tion resulting in increased connective tissue proliferation. 

(c) One of the most frequent causes in small animals is 
bronchopneumonia, ^^^len it terminates atypically fibroid 
changes occur in some of the involved lobules. In these 
cases the fibrosis begins as a chronic bronchitis or peri- 
bronchitis, invading later the surrounding parenchyma of the 
lung, which results in a great increase in the interstitial 
tissue. This is a frequent sequel to bronchopneumonia 
occurring during the course of infectious diseases (dis- 
temper, etc.). For some unexplained reason resolution 
does not occur, and the fibrinous exudate collected in the 
alveoli during the stage of red hepatization is displaced by 
fibrous tissue. The connective tissue formation necessarily 
begins in the alveolar walls, as from this source must be 
derived the new vessels which appear in the intra-alveolar 
new formations. Proliferative changes in the alveolar epi- 
thelium may for a time be active during this transformation 
of the exudate, but eventually the new tissue within the 
alveoli merges with the thickened, enclosing walls, which 
take a relatively inactive part in the process, and the area 
becomes entirely fibroid. Usually this lesion is only in parts 
of the lobules, but in some cases may extend into a consider- 
able portion of the lung tissue, involving the interstitial 
connective tissue which is greatly increased in amount. 

(d) Localized areas of interstitial pneumonia may originate 



58 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 

from abscesses in the lungs, sarcomas and carcinomas, or 
from inflammatory reactions from the pleura. 

Pathology.— Cirrhosis is characterized by the overgrowth 
of connective tissue in the lungs so that they become hard, 
traversed by fibrous bands, and more or less shrunken. The 
condition leads to destruction of the alveolar spaces, some- 
times with bronchiectasis, and always to marked impair- 
ment of function. When due to lobular pneumonia, which 
is the common form of pneumonia in small animals, the 
fibrous tissue production follows the course of the bronchi 
and bronchioli. The lung is greatly increased in weight, has 
lost its spongy condition, and is quite hard. On cut surface 
it shows grayish-white color, and sometimes caseous nodules 
of necrosis may be seen. In advanced cases the pleura is 
thickened and the lungs distorted. The two layers of the pleura 
are often adherent and the mediastinum may be indurated. 

Symptoms.— Moderate dyspnea and a chronic cough, with 
a discharge which may be slight or profuse, and the exhaled 
air has a fetid odor due to the retention of some of the dis- 
charge in the bronchiectatic cavities. The temperature is 
usually normal and no general symptoms are noticed. 

Auscultation reveals increased resonance and bronchial 
breathing. Percussion \ields dulness except where there are 
saccular dilatations of the bronchi. 

Diagnosis.— The history of the case and slow development 
following bronchopneumonia and the presence of severe 
dyspnea will materially aid in making the diagnosis. 

Prognosis. — Incurable. 

Treatment.— Expectorants and general stimulants may be 
used to modify the symptoms. 

FOREIGN BODY PNEUMONIA. 

Gangrene of the Lungs. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the lungs due to the inhala- 
tion of coarse material which usually results in necrosis of a 
part or of the entire organ. 

Etiology. — (a) Inhalation of foreign material (particles 
of food from the mouth, especially during anesthesia when 
vomition occurs, also when the pharynx and larynx are par- 



FOREIGN BODY PNEUMONIA 59 

alyzed) ; injury to the lungs from contusions, fractured ribs, 
penetrating wounds through the thoracic walls or from the 
esophagus and stomach (swallowed needles, sharp pieces of 
bone, etc.). 

(6) Inhalation of irritant medicinal substances when 
improperly administered (by closing the nasal openings, 
pulling the tongue forward or holding the mouth open too 
wide; holding the head too high or in any position which 
interferes with swallowing, manipulating the larynx or 
pharynx) . 

(c) The causes enumerated above are to be considered as 
predisposing factors, inasmuch as infection must be present to 
complete the process. In addition to the ordinary infection, 
which is normally present in the lungs, putrefactive organ- 
isms are necessary to produce gangrene. 

Pathology.— The involvement may be either diffuse or 
circumscribed, usually the latter, and in the form of irregular 
areas having a brown, greenish or black color. These are 
dry and surrounded by a zone of congestion and around this 
a zone of edema. The gangrene is of the moist variety and 
gives off a very penetrating odor. Cavities may occur in the 
lungs when the necrotic material is coughed out. 

Symptoms.— Dyspnea is pronounced and the expired air 
has a sweet, fetid odor. The temperature is elevated (104°- 
106° F.) and the pulse is small, rapid and very irregular. 
In the early stages the symptoms are similar to broncho- 
pneumonia, but when cavities appear in the lungs the symp- 
toms rapidly increase in severity. It is at this stage when 
the odor is a prominent symptom. 

Diagnosis.— This rests upon the characteristic odor of the 
exhaled air, high temperature and the rapid development. The 
history of the case often assists materially in the diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— Very unfavorable. Most cases terminate fatally 
in a few days. 

Treatment.— The animal's strength should be maintained 
by the use of highly concentrated foods (raw eggs, extract of 
beef, milk, etc.), given at frequent intervals. 

Little can be expected of medical treatment. Inhalations 
(oil of tar, turpentine, or creolin) may be used to overcome 
the odor and produce antiseptic action. 



CHAPTER V. 
DISEASES OF THE PLEURA. 

PLEURITIS. PLEURISY. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the pleura accompanied 
by a serous, serofibrinous, hemorrhagic, or purulent exuda- 
tion into the pleural cavity. 

Etiology. — (a) Penetrating wounds through the thoracic 
walls, from fractured ribs or sharp foreign bodies in the esoph- 
agus or stomach; contusion of the thoracic walls; tumors 
in adjacent parts; in rare cases cysts of tapeworms. These 
conditions make possible the entrance of organisms directly 
into the pleura, or by lowering the resistance of the pleura 
which favors the groTs-th of organisms that are carried to it 
by the IjTuph and blood streams. These are quite numerous 
and consist most often of the following: Bacillus bipolaris, 
Staphylococcus pyogenes, Leptothrix buccalis, and Strepto- 
thrix canis. 

(b) Occurs in cases of nephritis from an acciunulation of 
waste products in the blood or by bacterial toxins which are 
carried to the pleura by the blood and produce direct irrita- 
tion to the serous membrane. 

(c) Exposure to cold and cold dampness are common 
predisposing factors as they reduce the general resistance to 
infection. 

(d) Pleuritis frequently follows bronchitis and pneumonia, 
the organisms present enter the hTtiph and blood streams and 
are carried to the pleural cavity. In some cases of pneumonia 
where abscesses develop and open into the pleural cavity a 
purulent pleuritis is produced. 

(e) Extension of inflammation of neighboring tissues, viz: 
INIediastinitis during the course of infectious diseases; acute 
peritonitis; inflammation of abdominal organs. 



PLEURITIS— PLEURISY 61 

(/) Pleuritis is very often found during the course of infec- 
tious diseases. In the dog it occurs frequently as a secondary 
disease following distemper, septicemia and pyemia, the 
infection being carried by the blood and lymph. It is also 
seen during the course of rheumatic conditions. 

(g) Other predisposing causes are extreme exertion (hunt- 
ing dogs, greyhounds), or living under adverse conditions 
(bench shows, during transportation, etc.) which reduce the 
natural resistance. 

Pathology.— The involvement in pleuritis may be acute 
or chronic, local or general, and according to the variety of 
exudate, serous, serofibrinous, hemorrhagic or purulent. A 
single case of pleuritis may pass through all of the above 
stages. In all cases the pleura becomes hyperemic, rough 
and dull. The roughness interferes with the free movement 
of the gliding surface producing pain and the characteristic 
frictional sounds. Later exudation takes place into the 
pleural cavity. In the fibrinous form there is soon an exudate 
of fibrin, forming a thin, yellowish layer on the surface, and 
as this increases it causes the pleural surfaces to adhere 
together slightly. The exudate is composed of flakes and 
masses of fibrin containing leukocytes. The exudate may 
be absorbed completely, but if there has been much fibrin 
formation adhesions of varying density result. These 
adhesions later are organized into connective tissue which is 
at first delicate but soon becomes very dense, and in some 
cases so extensive as to obliterate almost completely the 
pleural cavity; or they may be in scattered areas only. 

In serofibrinous pleuritis there is a large amount of serous 
as well as fibrinous exudate. It may originate as the fibrinous 
form, but usually begins with a serous outpouring. This 
exudate is denser than the transudate seen in hydrothorax, 
and contains the usual inflammatory products. The amount 
of fluid will vary with individual cases and in the difl'erent 
small animals from 100 c.c. to 5000 c.c. When present 
in large quantities the lung is pushed backward and the 
neighboring organs pressed upon. This pressure on the 
lungs of the dog and cat is often sufficient to completely 
occlude the passage of air into the right posterior lobes. 



62 DISEASES OF THE PLEURA 

Hemorrhagic pleuritis is generally the result of infectious 
diseases and malignant growths on the pleura. The exudate 
is chiefly serous, with red blood cells present, but at times 
may be almost pure blood. 

Purulent pleuritis (pleuritis purulenta; pyo thorax; em- 
pyema) is the result of infection by some one of the many 
pyogenic organisms (staphylococcus, etc.). It may begin 
as a purulent pleuritis or it may follow infection of the sero- 
fibrinous form. In the pleural cavity is found a varying 
amount of cloudy fluid which contains a great number of pus 
cells. It may be greenish in color at times, but is usually 
yellowish. The pleurae are generally thickened and con- 
gested and covered with flakes of fibrin or degenerated 
endothelium. The pus may be completely absorbed and the 
two surfaces unite with dense adhesions; or it may become 
caseated and undergo calcareous infiltration. The changes 
are most marked in the visceral pleura, which becomes 
greatly thickened, at first being soft and edematous while 
fluid is present, but as this disappears it becomes indurated. 
During the course of purulent pleuritis there is always more 
or less involvement of the lungs which in some cases may 
result in pleurogenic pneumonia. In some chronic cases of 
pleuritis (pleuritis granulosa) there are numerous papilloma- 
like enlargements distributed over the surface of the pleura, 
and these by becoming confluent may produce extensive 
masses which interfere with the function of the neighboring 
tissues and organs. 

The serous exudate contains endothelial cells, white cor- 
puscles and small particles of fibrin. The infected exudate 
contains numerous pus cells, endothelial cells, and various 
kinds of .detritis. A rather high percentage of albumin is 
found in the serous exudate. 

Symptoms.— In the early stages of pleuritis the s^TQptoms 
manifest themselves in various ways, depending largely 
whether the disease is primary or secondary, local or general. 
In acute, primary pleuritis the disease usually begins abruptly 
with pronounced general s^TQptoms, viz: A chill, the animal 
seeking a warm place, twitching and trembling of the muscles, 
followed in a few hours with an elevation of temperature 



PLEURITIS— PLEURISY 63 

(103°-105° F.) and a small, weak and thready pulse. Cough 
appears early, is usually dry, and on account of the pain, is 
partially suppressed. The gait is stiff and they show con- 
siderable pain when moved. There is little or no appetite, 
but as a rule the thirst is intense. The visible mucous mem- 
branes are reddened and congested, and in cases where there 
is much exudation the membranes are cyanotic. Constipa- 
tion is often noted, the feces being quite dry and hard. The 
urine, while the exudate is forming, is voided in small quanti- 
ties and contains albumin. Later as it is absorbed the urine 
is increased in amount and of very light color. 

Dyspnea is quite marked in nearly all cases of pleuritis. 
In the early stages when the pleura is dry, the respirations 
are superficial, rapid and painful, but after exudation takes 
place they are less painful but labored. ^Mien bilateral the 
animal usually assumes a sitting posture, but when only one 
side is affected, will lie on the affected side. These positions 
are assumed to assist in fixing the intercostal muscles to 
relieve the pain which accompanies the elevation and depres- 
sion of the ribs. The abdominal type of respiration is used, 
the elbows being held outwardly and the abdominal muscles 
and the diaphragm brought into action. There is less ex- 
pansion on the affected side on account of the pain; when 
both sides are affected the ribs are held in a fixed position. 
Palpation of affected parts produces acute pain. 

Percussion. Dulness which gradually rises as the fluid 
accumulates in the cavity. The upper line of dulness is 
horizontal and varies with the position of the animal. Above 
the level of the accumulated fluid tympany will be noted. 

Auscultation. In the early stages when the inflamed mem- 
brane is dry, frictional sounds are characteristic and the 
vesicular murmur is increased, but as the exudate collects 
the sounds become less distinct or blowing in character, and 
finally only the bronchial tones will be audible. 

In the chronic form all the acute symptoms are modified 
with slight, if any general disturbance, although the tempera- 
ture may be variable, changing daily from below to alxne 
normal (100°-103° F.). 

Auscultation gives negative results. Pleuritic adhesions 
cannot be diagnosed during life. 



64 DISEASES OF THE PLEURA 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis depends upon the painful 
respiration, pain on palpation, abdominal type of respiration, 
and the presence of fluid in the thoracic cavity. History of 
injury may also aid materially. 

Prognosis.— Usually favorable in mild, acute cases or when 
local; the generalized purulent forms rarely recover. 

Iiea^tinejit.— Hygienic— It is necessary that the animal be 
kept in a warm and well ventilated place but free from 
draughts of cold, moist air. 

Dietetic— Concentrsited food should be given 3 or 4 times 
daily, using warm milk, eggs or extract of beef. 

Medical.— In the very early stages of pleuritis when the 
frictional sounds are present, cold applications to the walls 
of the thorax are indicated (cold water compresses, ice packs, 
etc.). The refrigeration from these cold applications pene- 
trates the walls and contracts the vessels, thus relieving the 
congestion of the pleura. Later (two or three days) warm, 
moist compresses are indicated to increase the circulation 
which will modify the inflammatory process and hasten the 
absorption of the fluid. In addition to this, counterirritants 
(oil of mustard and alcohol 1-20, tincture of cantharides, 
etc.) could be used to continue the same process. When the 
cough is severe, narcotic agents (morphin sulphate 0.025 
daily) can be used to allay the irritation. Quinin sulphate 
(0.2 three times daily) may be used to control the tempera- 
ture and pulse if they become too high. Encourage diuresis 
by using fluidextract of digitalis (0.1-0.2 daily) or diuretin 
(0.2-0.5 three times daily). If constipation be present 
catharsis may be produced by the use of calomel (0.05-0.5 
daily) or magnesium sulphate (5.0-10.0) to produce a hydra- 
gogue action. When fluid is present absorption may be 
induced by the use of potassium iodid (0.2-0.3 three times 
daily) or pilocarpin (0.005-0.1) except in cases of feeble 
heart action when they must be used sparingly. 

Surgical.— The effusion will require aspiration under the 
following conditions: (a) When it excites much dyspnea; 
(b) when in large quantities; (c) when purulent; (d) when it 
remains unabsorbed after ten to twenty days' treatment. 

Thoracentesis is performed by the use of a thoroughly 



HYDROTHORAX 65 

sterilized trocar and cannula or aspirating needle. It is best 
done with the animal in either a sitting or standing position. 
Remove the hair from and disinfect a small area on the side 
of the thorax so that the instrument may be inserted (in a 
forward direction) at the anterior border of the sixth, seventh 
and eighth ribs and as low in the cavity as possible. The 
cavity is reached as soon as resistance to the passage of the 
needle has ceased. The fluid flows out in a continuous stream 
at first, then synchronous with respiration. After some of the 
fluid is out, the air may rush in during inspiration, and to 
prevent this hold the finger over the tube at the end of each 
expiration. If the flow ceases suddenly it is due to plugging 
with flakes of fibrin which can be forced away by reinsertion 
of the trocar. The amount of fluid removed depends upon 
the heart action. When it becomes weak and rapid, or when 
coughing suddenly develops, the operation should be dis- 
continued. This can be done daily at a different site of 
puncture until all of the fluid is removed. 



HYDROTHORAX. 

Definition.— A collection of serous fluid in the thoracic 
cavity without inflammation of the pleura. 

Etiology.— This condition always occurs as a secondary 
process and is a symptom of many affections (insufficiency of 
the heart; nephritis; chronic diseases of the lungs) . It usually 
accompanies ascites, hydropericardium and edema of the 
skin; also due to obstruction of vessels (vena azygos) ; follows 
a general anemia, hydremia, chronic infectious diseases, 
carcinomas and sarcomas. These latter diseases damage 
the endothelium of the vessels and allow the transudation 
of fluid from them. 

Pathology.— The transudate is light or reddish-yellow in 
color and contains a few flakes of fibrin. If the condition 
develops very rapidly, the transudate contains many red 
corpuscles. The specific gravity and albumin content are 
less than that of blood serum. The pleura may be thickened 
and pale. 
5 



66 DISEASES OF THE PLEURA 

Symptoms.— Hydrothorax develops rapidly and on both 
sides of the thoracic cavity. Dyspnea results from compres- 
sion of the lungs. In severe cases this compression may be 
sufficient to cause edema of the lungs. The temperature is 
normal. The shape of the chest is unchanged except when a 
very large quantity of fluid is present causing the lower part 
of the thorax to be depressed. 

Auscultation reveals hard respiratory sounds due to 
increased respiration. Percussion over the lower part of the 
chest reveals dulness, the upper level of which changes with 
the position of the animal. Above this level tympany is 
pronounced. 

Diagnosis.— Dyspnea with sudden onset in the absence of 
other symptoms; percussion, and exploratory puncture. 

Prognosis.— Depends upon the causative disease. 

Iie&tmeiit.— Medical.— Saline purgatives (magnesium sul- 
phate, 8.0-12.0) may assist iii the removal of the fluid by 
eliminating fluid from the circulation. 

Surgical.— ThoTSicentesis (see pleuritis), when respiration 
becomes distressed, and cyanosis is evident. Repeat as 
often as necessary, using a new site for puncture each time. 
Further treatment is to be directed to the primary cause. 



PNEUMOTHORAX. 

Definition.— Air in the pleural sac. 

Etiology.— Mec/iamca/.— Perforating wounds from the 
exterior (injuries, exploratory puncture, etc.); perforation 
through the diaphragm by abscesses of the liver, stomach 
or esophagus ; perforation from the lung by abscesses or rup- 
ture of air vessels in the normal lung. Gas-producing organ- 
isms (B. aerogenes capsulatus) in the pleural exudates are 
occasional causes. 

Pathology.— Pneumothorax rarely occurs by itself, usually 
being associated with serofibrinous (hydropneumothorax) 
or infectious pleuritis (pyopneumothorax), due to infection 
being carried in with the air. A serous or purulent fluid is 
found in the pleural sacs and the membranes are inflamed. 



HEMOTHORAX 67 

Symptoms.— Dyspnea is usually quite pronounced, the 
mucous membrane cyanotic and the pulse rapid and feeble. 
The physical signs are very distinctive. The affected side 
shows marked enlargement and the heart beat is displaced. 

On percussion the resonance is usually tympanitic, and 
depending upon the degree of tension there may be flat 
tympany, or a full hyperresonant tone like emphysema, 
while in others with extreme tension dulness will be noticed. 
There is usually dulness at the lower part due to the effused 
fluid, which can readily be made to change the level by 
changing the position of the animal. 

On auscultation the normal lung sounds are suppressed 
on the affected side and exaggerated on the other side, which 
is very suggestive. The rales have a peculiar metallic 
sound. 

Diagnosis.— The dyspnea, enlargement of the affected side, 
small amount of effusion in the cavity and cyanotic mem- 
branes. 

Prognosis.— Depends upon the cause but is usually favor- 
able. 

Treatment.— In pneumothorax with extreme tension imme- 
diate aspiration (see thoracentesis) should be performed. 
Penetrating wounds through the thoracic walls should be 
occluded (adhesive plasters, bandage, , etc.) to prevent 
further entrance of air and infection into the cavity. A small 
amount of it will be readily absorbed and if infection has not 
been carried into the cavity recovery will be prompt. 



HEMOTHORAX. 

Definition.— An effusion of pure blood into the pleural sac. 

Etiology.— Traumatism, rupture of the vessels from over- 
exertion especially when the walls of the vessels are diseased 
(carcinomas, sarcomas, and infections). 

Pathology.— Presence of pure blood in the thoracic cavity 
and the injury to the vessel wall. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms are those of an acute anemia 
accompanied by a rapid filling of the thoracic cavity. 



68 DISEASES OF THE PLEURA 

Diagnosis.— The above symptoms in addition to thoracen- 
tesis confirm the diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— Depends upon the extent and nature of the 
injury. 

Treatment.— il/e6?z*ca/.— The administration of internal 
astringents (ergot fid. ext. 2.0-4.0) or adrenalin chlorid 
(0.6-4.0 of 1-1000 sol.). These can be repeated in one or 
two hours if necessary. Intravenous injections of normal salt 
solution to maintain the blood pressure may also be used. 



PART II. 
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 



CHAPTER I. 
DISEASES OF THE PERICARDIUM. 

Examination.— An examination of the circulatory system 
in small animals is of importance in determining diseases 
affecting primarily the heart and bloodvessels, and also for 
assisting in the diagnosis of a number of acute infectious and 
non-infectious diseases. 

A systematic examination from a clinical standpoint 
includes the following: (1) The pulse, and (2) the heart. 

1. The pulse is best examined in the dog by slightly press- 
ing the femoral artery with the index finger, or the radial 
artery inside the forearm. In small dogs this is often diffi- 
cult, and in such cases the hand should be placed against the 
thorax on the left side just behind the elbow, and at the 
lower third of the cavity, where the heart beat is readily 
distinguished. In cats and rabbits this method is the most 
satisfactory. In birds the pulse is difficult to recognize owing 
to the vessels being well protected and the heart very small 
and surrounded with fat and the other organs. A phonendo- 
scope is best used to detect the heart beats. Clinically we 
must consider : (a) The frequency, (6) the rhythm or cadence, 
and (c) the quality of the pulse. 

(a) The frequency of the pulse varies considerably in 
different species of small animals and birds, and also in 
individual animals of the same species. The size, age, sex, 
breeding, temperature, time of day, etc., all have a decided 



70 DISEASES OF THE PERICARDIUM 

influence upon it. The average frequency for small animals 
is as follows : 

Dogs 60-200 

Cats 100-180 

Rabbits 110-140 

Birds 120-180. 

An abnormal increase in the pulse is found in all elevations 
of temperature, in severe injuries (fractures of bones, etc.), 
in mental excitement, valvular defects, severe hemorrhage, 
and in heart weakness from any cause. 

A decrease in frequency, or slow pulse, occurs in the later 
stages of some poisonings, diseases of the brain (chronic 
and subacute hydrocephalus), tumors in the brain, icterus 
gravis, collapse, etc. 

(6) The rhythm of the pulse should be regular, especially 
in cats, rabbits and birds; in the dog an irregular pulse is 
found so frequently in apparently healthy animals, that it 
should not be looked upon as an abnormal condition ; in fact, 
an irregular pulse in the dog is the rule. An irregular or 
arhythmic pulse is therefore a physiological condition in some 
of the small animals. However, in many pathological con- 
ditions a pronounced irregularity occurs as, during convales- 
cence from infectious diseases, severe gastro-intestinal dis- 
turbances, severe weakness, and in some chronic constitu- 
tional diseases. An irregular pulse is observed often after 
large doses of digitalis. 

(c) The quality of the pulse. The pulse beat should be 
of equal volume, and it varies with the different species of 
animal. In all small animals the pulse is rapid, strong and 
hard. In the dog an unequal pulse is frequently observed. 
The pulse is full and distended after exercise, during the early 
stages of a number of diseases; empty after severe hemor- 
rhage, intense heart weakness and collapse. The pulse is 
hard and full in severe pain, peritonitis, and acute brain 
diseases. 

The venous pulse is often observed in old dogs and is 
usually indicative of some chronic heart affection, or general 
heart weakness. 



EXAMINATION * 71 

2. The Heart.— This is best examined in small animals, by 
(a) palpation, (b) percussion, and (c) auscultation. 

(a) Palpation. The heart beat is readily felt in all small 
animals by placing the hand over the cardiac region (between 
the fourth and seventh ribs, lower third of thorax on either 
side). The heart beat can be felt on both sides of the chest. 
This method of determining the frequency of the heart beat 
is practical especially in very young or small animals, and, 
as noted, also gives us the frequency of the pulse. 

The force of the heart beat depends largely upon the con- 
dition of the animal (emaciated or fat), and whether taken 
during exercise, excitement or at rest. 

The force of the heart beat is increased in the following 
conditions : 

In hypertrophy of the heart, acute myocarditis, endo- 
carditis, and pericarditis; some poisons, such as aconite and 
digitalis; after severe exertion or excitement; after consider- 
able loss of blood; where the temperature is elevated. The 
heart beat is weakened in the following : Degeneration of the 
heart muscle; the later stages of acute infectious diseases; 
some poisonings; compression of the heart in hydrothorax, 
hydropericardium, pneumopericardium; emphysema of the 
lungs, and in the effusion stage of pleuritis. In unilateral 
pleuritis the normal force of the beat may be more plainly 
noted on the healthy than on the diseased side. 

(6) Percussion. This is of little value in diagnosis in 
small animals. The zone of cardiac dulness is between the 
fourth and seventh ribs. This zone is normally about two 
to two and one-half inches in diameter. 

The zone of cardiac dulness is increased in hypertrophy 
of the heart; hydropericardium; tumors and induration of 
the lungs (chronic interstitial pneumonia). The zone is 
decreased in emphysem.a of the lungs and pneumothorax. 
Pain is observed on percussion in acute pericarditis and myo- 
carditis. 

(c) Auscultation. This method of examination is of great 
value in determining the condition of the heart. It is best 
done in the small animal by placing the ])atient in a standing 
position on a table, covering the cardiac region with a cloth, 



72 ' DISEASES OF THE PERICARDIUM , 

and placing the right ear directly over it. A phonendoscope 
may be used which materially assists in differentiating the 
heart sounds, the instrument greatly intensifying them. 
Normally, there are two heart tones. One of these occurs 
at the moment of contraction of the heart (systolic), and 
the other at the dilatation of the organ (diastolic). In most 
small animals the rapid pulse makes it difficult to distin- 
guish between these sounds. It is therefore best to com- 
pare the pulse with the heart beat. The interval between 
the systolic and diastolic sounds is shorter than the one 
between the diastolic and systolic. In very fat animals it 
is difficult to distinguish the heart tones with any degree of 
accuracy. In rabbits and cats the heart tones are often so 
rapid, the sounds following each other in such rapid succes- 
sion, that they are indistinguishable. This condition occurs 
in all animals after excitement or exercise. In very young 
animals it is normal. In birds the heart sounds are almost 
impossible to recognize. 

Both of these heart sounds are increased in hypertrophy 
of the heart, anemias, and thickening of the lung tissue 
around the heart. 

The second or diastolic sound is increased in distention 
of the arteries, often the result of a congestion of the pulmo- 
nary circulation combined with hypertrophy of the heart. 

A decrease in the volume of the heart sounds is observed 
in heart weakness, such as degeneration of the heart muscle, 
in hydropericardium, and in emphysema of the lung. In 
many of these cases the heart sounds are imperceptible. In 
small animals the various heart bruits (abnormal sounds) 
are often difficult to recognize. 

It will require careful and persistent effort on the part of 
the student to familiarize himself with even the more common 
bruits which are the following: (1) Endocardial, and (2) 
pericardial. 

1. Endocardial Bruits are divided into: (a) Organic 
endocardial bruits which are caused either by a narrowing 
(stenosis) of the valves of the heart, or changes in the valves 
which interfere with their proper closing (insufficiency). 
(&) Inorganic endocardial bruits occurring without any 



PERICARDITIS 73 

particular alteration at the orifices or valves of the heart, 
and are found in the different forms of anemia in animals. 

2. Pericardial Bruits.— These bruits consist of friction 
sounds due to the pericardium becoming rough and dry. 
These sounds can be distinguished, as they do not occur 
synchronously with the heart sounds and are often indepen- 
ent of them. They are noted in pericarditis where there is 
not sufficient fluid to keep the membranes separated. They 
must be distinguished from pleural friction sounds, and can 
be quite readily, as they occur entirely independent of the 
respiratory movements. 

From a clinical standpoint, in small animals, further 
differentiation of the various heart bruits cannot be made. 

PERICARDITIS. 

Definition. —An acute or chronic inflammation of the peri- 
cardium. 

Etiology.— Inflammation of the pericardium may originate 
primarily or secondarily. 

Primary pericarditis may result from : (a) Trauma, which 
may originate from within, such as the passage of foreign 
bodies (needles, pins, pieces of bone, etc.) through the esopha- 
geal walls. This occurs most commonly in the dog and cat 
from swallowing needles, pins, etc., during play. It may also 
result from trauma from without, such as puncture wounds 
through the thoracic walls, or from falling, being run over 
by vehicles, etc. In such cases the pericardium is injured 
directly or indirectly by being pressed upon by the displaced 
thoracic wall or adjacent organs. 

(6) Infective processes which in some cases may be 
primary or at least involve principally the pericardium. 
Staphylococci, streptococci and the specific virus of dis- 
temper are the most common organisms found. Primary 
infection, however, is not a common etiological factor. 

(c) Cold has frequently been mentioned as one of the 
causes of pericarditis. This should be considered simply 
as a predisposing factor in lowering general resistance, which 
allows the development of infection, etc. 



74 DISEASES OF THE PERICARDIUM 

Secondary Pericarditis.— This form may result from a 
number of conditions: (a) Catarrhal pneumonia, which is 
common in the dog and cat; simple pleuritis; endocarditis, 
myocarditis, etc. It may also follow diseases of the medi- 
astinal lymph glands, the ribs, sternum, and even in some 
cases the abdominal viscera, (b) In septic processes, such 
as suppurating wounds, puerperal septicemia, etc. {c) In 
specific febrile diseases, such as distemper in the dog and 
cat, pneumonia, chicken cholera, etc. 

Necropsy.— On postmortem are recognized: (a) Acute 
fibrinous pericarditis, (6) pericarditis with effusion, and (c) 
chronic adhesive pericarditis. 

(a) Acute Fibrinous Pericarditis.— This may be local or 
general. In the mild form dull, rough, lusterless masses of 
exudate cover the surface of the pericardium with a thin 
coating of fibrin which is readily peeled off. In the more 
severe form the exudate is more abundant, the masses of 
organized fibrinous deposits giving the surface a rough, 
shaggy appearance. In this form there is usually found a 
small quantity of fluid in the meshes of the fibrin. The heart 
muscle is not affected, except in the more severe form where 
it will- be found pale and turbid. 

(b) Pericarditis icith Effusion.— This effusion may be sero- 
fibrinous, hemorrhagic or purulent. It is most commonly 
serofibrinous. In this case the pericardial surfaces are covered 
with a thick fibrin and a collection of serous fluid fills the 
pericardial sac. The hemorrhagic form is usually found in 
acute cases which have terminated fatally following injuries, 
etc. The pericardial sac will contain a varying quantity of 
serous fluid mixed with blood. When pus is present the peri- 
cardial surfaces will appear rough, occasionally eroded and 
of grayish color. This form occurs via metastasis or from 
internal trauma introducing infection into the pericardial sac. 

(c) Chronic Adhesive Pericarditis.— Chrome adhesive peri- 
carditis is found occasionally on postmortem. It is char- 
acterized by marked thickening of the membranes, with 
adhesions between the membranes themselves, and the 
adjacent organs. 



PERICARDITIS 75 

Symptoms.— Mild cases of pericarditis present, as a rule, 
no symptoms by which an accurate diagnosis can be made. 
In the more severe forms, fever is usually present, but the 
elevation of temperature depends as much upon the primary 
disease as upon the pericarditis present. Temperature is 
usually 103°-104° F. The respirations are increased, espe- 
cially when the animal is moved, the slightest exertion causing 
a marked dyspnea. Palpation over the cardiac region often 
reveals a distinct fremitus from the pericardial folds rubbing 
together. 

Auscultation. The friction sound due to the rubbing 
together of the pericardial surfaces is distinctly audible, and 
is the most important diagnostic symptom. The examiner 
is greatly aided by the phonendoscope, which brings out the 
friction sounds more prominently compensating for their 
indistinctness due to the rapid heart beat. 

As the disease advances, the heart action becomes inter- 
fered with, and all the symptoms of valvular insufficiency 
will present themselves. Dropsical conditions from defective 
arterial tension will be in evidence, especially ascites, and 
dropsy of the extremities. There are general symptoms of 
impaired appetite, emaciation and general weakness. Death 
may occur suddenly or the condition become chronic and 
last for weeks, depending very largely upon the cause. 

Diagnosis.— An accurate diagnosis in small animals presents 
some difficulties, and a thorough examination is always 
necessary. The frictional tones are characteristic, but they 
are determinable only in the acute fibrinous pericarditis. 

Prognosis.— In the milder cases of acute fibrinous peri- 
carditis and serofibrinous pericarditis the prognosis while 
favorable, should always be guarded at least until the 
etiological factor can be established. Other forms are always 
to be considered unfavorable. 

Tiesitment.— Hygienic— The animal should be i)laced 
where there is absolute quiet. Prevent excitement, such as 
by the visits of the owner, or strangers. Have the room 
moderately warm and well ventilated. 

Dietetic— Nutritious food (lean meat, raw or cooked ; milk, 
etc.) should be given to maintain the general condition of the 
animal. 



76 DISEASES OF THE PERICARDIUM 

Medical. — Heart tonics and stimulants are indicated to 
tone up the action of the heart, and to assist in the ehmina- 
tion of fluid from the body. Digitalis is of value for this 
purpose, given to dogs in doses of 0.1-0.2 of the fluidextract 
once or t^dce daily depending upon the condition of the 
patient. 

Laxatives (magnesium sulphate 8.0-12.0, or calomel 0.05- 
0.1) are indicated occasionally to regulate the bowels and 
also to assist in the elimination of fluids. 

Surgical.— When the exudate accumulates to the extent 
of greatly interfering with the heart action, indicated by 
dyspnea, small rapid pulse, cyanosis, etc., paracentesis of the 
pericardium should be performed at once. The operation is 
not very difhcult and is as follows: A rather long, small 
exploring trocar or aspirating needle is thoroughly sterilized. 
Shave the hair over the left cardiac region, wash thoroughly 
with soap and water, and follow mth alcohol; then paint the 
surface with tincture of iodin. The needle should be inserted 
at the lowest point in the pericardial sac so as to be able to 
remove all the exudate and lessen the danger of injury to the 
heart. Insert the needle slightly downward and forward, 
and not too deep. The fluid will flow out in a steady stream. 
Repeated operations on successive days are often necessary. 
The skin wound should be protected by covering with flexible 
collodion. 

HYDROPERICARDIUM. 

Dropsy of the Pericardium. 

Definition.— x\ collection of serous fluid (transudate) in 
the pericardial sac not due to inflammation. 

Etiology.— This condition most often accompanies general 
hydropsy resulting from valvular defects (insufliciencies), 
myocarditis, diseases of the coronary arteries, chronic nephri- 
tis, etc. It also occurs from pericarditis (see Pericarditis). 

Sjnnptoms.— The symptoms are similar to pericarditis 
(see Pericarditis) except it runs a longer and more chronic 
course. There is absence of temperature, and frictional bruit 
is heard on auscultation. 

Treatment.— Same as for serofibrinous pericarditis, which 
see. 



HEMOPERICARDIUM ' 77 

HEMOPERICARDIUM. 

Definition.— A collection of blood in the pericardial sac. 

Etiology.— This condition is found in aneurysm of the 
aorta, cardiac wall, or coronary arteries, and in rupture and 
wounds of the heart. Dogs and cats are frequently affected 
from gunshot wounds, being run over, etc. 

Symptoms.— The principal symptoms are those of rapid 
heart weakness, paleness of the mucous membranes, rapid 
weakness and in most cases death in a very short time from 
compression of the heart. In slight hemorrhages the animal 
may live for several hours or days with a progressive heart 
weakness, dyspnea and all the physical signs of effusion in 
the pericardial sac. 

Treatment.— Treatment in most cases is impossible, and in 
the slow progressive cases usually unsatisfactory. 

Other diseases of the pericardium, such as pneumoperi- 
cardium, are of no importance clinically. 



CHAPTER II. 
DISEASES OF THE HEART. 

VALVULAR INSUFFICIENCY AND STENOSIS. 

Definition.— A pathological or anatomical defect in the 
valves and openings of he heart leading to an irregularity 
in the circulation of the blood. These conditions are very 
common in small animals, especially the dog, where often 
quite extensive alterations in the valves are found on autopsy 
which failed to produce any marked symptom during life. 
However, when severe forms of insufficiency or stenosis 
occur, they are characterized by a marked disturbance in the 
heart action, circulation of the blood and the general condi- 
tion of the animal. It is often very difficult and sometimes 
impossible to differentiate clinically between the various 
valvular and ostial defects which are found on autopsies. 

Insufficiency .—In general, this condition occurs in two 
forms: (a) Imperfect closing of the valves which permits 
a portion of the blood at the contraction of the heart muscle 
to flow back into the chamber from which it came. This 
defect may exist in the atrioventricular valves or in the semi- 
lunar. Improper closing of the semilunar valve allows a 
portion of the blood which has been forced into the artery 
to again return to the chamber during diastole; or imperfect 
closing of the mitral or tricuspid valves during systole allows 
a portion of the blood to flow back into the auricles again 
from whence it came. In the early stages of insufficiency, 
owing to certain compensatory processes, no marked symp- 
toms will be observed. However, as soon as the heart is not 
capable of performing the increased labor from lack of nutri- 
tion, increased disturbance in the valves, or general weakness 
from anemia, cachexia, etc., marked disturbance in the 
general circulation will soon become evident. These are 



VALVULAR INSUFFICIENCY AND STENOSIS 79 

manifested by ascites, dropsical effusions, etc., in different 
parts of the body. 

(b) Stenosis or contraction of the openings. In this con- 
dition the opening is narrowed so that the chambers of the 
heart are improperly filled. At the period of diastole, the 
blood is held back at the entrance of the affected chamber, 
and therefore normal filling of the chamber is interfered 
with. This condition may occur at any of the openings of 
the heart and will always induce imperfect heart action. 
Every interference with an arterial opening causes imperfect 
ventricular contraction; likewise defective venous openings 
lessen the auricular contraction and power. This abnor- 
mality in the action of the heart produces more or less 
general disturbance in the circulation of the blood, and as 
a consequence the reserve force of the heart is called into 
action until compensatory hypertrophy can take place to 
keep the circulation as near normal as possible. As soon as 
the reserve energy is used, or the compensatory hypertrophy 
fails to keep up the circulation, serious general symptoms 
of defective circulation appear as is often observed in old dogs. 

Etiology. —Valvular defects are produced by a variety of 
causes : 

(a) Endocarditis is the most common cause (see Etiology 
of Endocarditis). Endocarditis produces an inflammatory 
thickening of the margins of the valves leading to their 
imperfect closure. If the chronic inflammations persist it 
leads to cicatricial contractions (stenoses), and often there 
are found in long standing cases in old animals, deposits of 
calcareous matter on the valves and around the openings. 

(6) Dilatation of the heart or weakness of the heart muscle 
will sometimes affect the openings, the dilatation preventing 
contact of the valve margins and a complete closure. 

(c) Certain poisons and toxins are causes which lead to 
alterations in the structure and ultimately the action of the 
valves. 

(d) Atheromatous processes may produce the condition. 
However this is not common in small am'mals. 

(e) Occurs during the course of some diseases, such as 
anemia, pernicious anemia, etc. 



80 DISEASES OF THE HEART 

Necropsy.— It has been found that the mitral and aortic 
valves are the ones most commonly affected in the dog. In 
the early stages the edges of the valves are slightly thickened 
and invaded with small nodules. Later are found, as the 
sclerotic changes increase, contractions of the fibrinous 
tissue, producing thickening and deformity of the segments 
of the valves, the edges of which become round, curled and 
cannot be closed perfectly. In some severe cases the valves 
become very much thickened, with numerous hard nodules 
(which may be calcareous), giving them a marked uneven 
surface. The chordae tendinese are often found thickened 
and contracted. The apices of the papillary muscles fre- 
quently show fibrated or calcareous change. 

Symptoms.— In small animals the general symptoms of 
valvular deficiency are of greatest importance from a clinical 
standpoint, as it is very difficult during the life of the animal 
to distinguish mth any degree of accuracy the separate 
valvular insufficiencies. However, some of them present 
some symptoms which are rather characteristic, and there- 
fore, a brief description of the most common ones mil be 
given. 

As general symptoms, the following are the principal ones 
observed which are common to all valvular defects at some 
period in their course: Increased heart action; rapid and 
irregular pulse; palpitation of the heart; venous pulse 
(observed in the jugular at its entrance to the thorax); 
dyspnea; cyanosis of mucous membranes; hydrothorax; 
ascites; edema along abdomen, pectoral region, extremities; 
general emaciation, partial or complete loss of appetite mth 
marked digestive disturbance. The condition gradually 
becomes aggravated until there is a general nutritive dis- 
turbance, weakness, and death from exhaustion. Careful 
auscultation will reveal the valvular insufficiency. Palpation 
over the cardiac region will determine the irregular and 
rapid pulse, and often a distinct fremitus. The temperature 
in the early stages is usually elevated (103°-104° F.); it 
later becomes normal or even subnormal as the disease 
progresses. 

Symptoms of insufficiency of the mitral valves : This is of 



VALVULAR INSUFFICIENCY AND STENOSIS 81 

frequent occurrence in the dog. It is often accompanied by 
dilatation or hypertrophy of the heart. Pulse rapid and 
irregular; systolic bruit and increase of the diastolic sound on 
auscultation; dyspnea; cyanosis; general weakness; dropsical 
conditions (ascites, etc.). A careful examination is necessary 
to make a differential diagnosis. 

The direct effect of aortic insufficiency is the regurgitation 
of blood from the artery into the ventricle, causing a disten- 
tion of the cavity and a reduction of blood pressure in the 
artery. The amount returning varies with the size of the 
opening. This regurgitation eventually leads to dilatation 
and finally hypertrophy. In this way the valve defect is 
compensated for, and as with each ventricular contraction a 
larger amount of blood is forced into the arterial system, the 
regurgitation of a certain amount for a time during diastole 
does not interfere with the nutrition or with the general 
circulation. 

The condition is characterized clinically by: A full pulse; 
strong heart beat; dyspnea; dropsical conditions (ascites, 
etc.) ; cough from congestion and edema of the lungs ; increased 
area of dulness in the cardiac region; diastolic bruit, etc. 

Insufficiencies of other valves are impossible to recognize 
during life in these animals. 

Diagnosis.— The faulty heart action is not difficult to 
recognize, but to determine the location of the lesion is very 
difficult in small animals. In some cases, however, by care- 
fully observing the symptoms and using the phonendoscope 
a differentiation is possible. 

Prognosis.— Complete recovery cannot be expected even 
in mild cases of insufficiency, therefore the prognosis is 
unfavorable. However, the condition may exist for a long 
time in individual cases without producing any serious 
symptoms provided adequate compensation exists. 

Treatment. — (a) During the stage of compensation no 
medical treatment is indicated. Keej) the animal quiet as 
possible, avoid all undue excitement and exercise, and gi\(^ 
nutritious food to maintain the general condition. 

(b) Stage of broken compensation, when the symptoms 
of weakness, edema, palpitation, etc., a])i)ear, heart tonics 
6 



82 DISEASES OF THE HEART 

are indicated. Digitalis fluidextract (0.05-0.15); tinct. 
strophanthus (0.5-1.5 tmce daily); or caffein citrate (0.1-0.2 
tT^dce daily). By the use of these preparations an effort is 
made to reestablish a compensatory action, and should this 
take place the symptoms of edema, ascites, palpitation, etc., 
-^dll gradually disappear. Should this treatment be unsuc- 
cessful, a symptomatic treatment may be tried such as the 
use of diuretics and cathartics to relieve the effusions, and 
in severe palpitation, sedatives (morphin). In cases of 
severe weakness, where the pulse is very weak and irregular, 
direct heart stimulants (camphor, ether, etc.) must be given 
to afford temporary relief. 

In disturbances of the digestive tract with loss of appetite, 
tincture of nux vomica (0.2-0.8) or tincture of gentian (1.0- 
2.0) should be given twice daily to tone the digestive tract. 
Other symptoms that develop must be treated according to 
their importance. 

MYOCARDITIS. 

The folloT^ing forms of myocarditis are observed in small 
animals: (a) Acute myocarditis, and (b) chronic myocarditis. 

Acute Myocarditis.— Definition.— An acute inflammation 
of the heart muscle (myocardium). From a pathological 
standpoint two distinct t^'pes of this condition are recog- 
nized, viz,: The acute parenchymatous and the purulent 
myocarditis. From a clinical standpoint such a differentia- 
tion cannot usually be made. Therefore, both will be con- 
sidered under acute myocarditis. 

Etiology. — (a) From severe exertion, such as hunting dogs 
on long runs, continuous stud service, hard pulling of draft 
dogs, etc. 

(6) Exposure to cold, or sudden chilling of the surface of 
the body, resulting in an unequal distribution of the blood, 
producing a congestion of the bloodvessels of the heart and 
occasionally resulting in an inflammatory reaction. 

(c) Secondary to infectious diseases, such as distemper, 
pyemia, septicemia, tuberculosis, cholera, and entero- 
hepatitis in fowls, etc. During the course of the infectious 
diseases toxins are formed and carried by the blood to the 



MYOCARDITIS 83 

heart muscle leading to inflammation and fatty degeneration. 
The other organs in the body are often similarly affected 
during the course of infectious diseases. 

(d) From poisons (arsenic, phosphorous, silver, mercury, 
etc.) being absorbed, carried through the circulation to the 
heart muscle, producing irritation, congestion, and some of 
them (phosphorous, arsenic) later fatty degeneration of the 
muscle. 

(e) Often results by spread of the inflammation from the 
endocardium and pericardium, especially in ulcerous endo- 
carditis and suppurative pericarditis, the infection reaching 
via blood the heart muscle. 

(/) Direct injuries to the heart which occur quite frequently 
in small animals from foreign bodies perforating the esoph- 
agus or chest wall; also by being run over, the heart muscle 
becoming contused. 

Necropsy.— Pathologically numerous conditions are found, 
the changes in the myocardium are quite varied, and in acute 
myocarditis may be classed under two heads as follows : 

(a) Acute Parenchymatous Myocarditis.— This as a primary 
condition, is not very common, and is usually associated with 
acute inflammation in other organs. In this form there is 
found interstitial infiltration, inflammation of the muscle 
fibers, which are colored reddish-gray, yellowish-white, or 
even white. The muscle fibers are indistinct and show a 
more or less homogeneous structure. 

Microscopically, the fibers show a loss of striation, with 
small cellular infiltration in the interstitial connective tissue. 
Large numbers of white corpuscles are found between the 
fibers. 

(6) Pundent Myocarditis.— This form occurs quite com- 
monly in the dog, less commonly in cats and birds, and is 
found mostly in pyemic conditions. Small abscesses are dis- 
tributed through the connective tissue varying in size from a 
millet seed to a pea. Sometimes by confluence the abscesses 
are much larger. 

Symptoms.— In the early stages the symptoms are similar 
to those of insufficiency or weakness of the heart. '^Fhe heart 
beat is very rapid, three to four times normal, throbbing, and 



84 DISEASES OF THE HEART 

in the dog can be seen quite a distance from the animal, the 
tumultuous throb of the heart shaking the whole body. The 
heart action soon becomes irregular and very weak. The 
pulse is very rapid, weak, small, irregular and in later stages 
imperceptible. The pulse usually becomes so rapid that it 
is impossible to count it. Respirations are rapid, labored, 
and the animal soon becomes prostrated. 

The temperature in the early stages is elevated, the degree 
depending upon the etiological factor; later it becomes 
subnormal. 

In some cases myocarditis takes a very rapid course, the 
animals dying suddenly from rupture or paralysis of the heart. 

Diagnosis.— This is difficult as the symptoms are quite 
similar to endocarditis, pericarditis, etc. A careful exami- 
nation should always be made. When insufficiency of the 
heart action exists without frictional sounds or bruits, myo- 
carditis may be suspected. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable, especially in 
=if secondary myocarditis, due to infection, or during the course 
of infectious diseases. Even in primary acute myocarditis 
there are always degenerative changes in the heart muscle 
which are impossible to entirely overcome. If recovery 
occurs it is as a rule only partial (chronic myocarditis). 

TTea.tment.— Hygienic— The animal should be kept in a 
quiet place, avoiding all excitement or handling. 

Medical.— The heart weakness should be treated by using 
heart stimulants and tonics, such as dilute alcohol (2.0- 
4.0); fluidextract digitalis (0.075-0.10); caffein citrate 
(0.5-1.0 subcutaneously every six to ten hours); ether (2.0- 
4.0 subcutaneously); oil camphor (1.0-4.0 subcutaneously); 
or atropin sulphate (0.04-0.075 subcutaneously). The use 
of these preparations will depend largely upon the needs of 
the case. 

In very acute cases there is no treatment that will produce 
satisfactory results. 

Chronic Myocarditis.— Definition.— A chronic inflamma- 
tion of the myocardium. This condition occurs frequently 
in small animals but is rarely recognized during life. It is 
often confused with other heart affections. 



ACUTE ENDOCARDITIS 85 

Etiology. — (a) Occurs commonly from mild, acute attacks, 
especially in those cases where the interstitial connective 
tissue is primarily involved. 

(6) During the course of chronic muscular or articular 
rheumatism in old dogs; also from chronic nephritis, tuber- 
culosis, pericarditis, endocarditis of dogs, cats and birds. 

(c) Chronic poisoning by chemicals, toxins, etc., often 
will produce the condition by interfering with the circulation 
through the coronary arteries. 

Necropsy.— Throughout the heart muscle appear circum- 
scribed masses of fibrous tissue which are white in color and 
of firm to hard consistency. They occur most conspicuously 
near the apex of the left ventricle. The fibrous areas may be 
quite dense, like a cicatrix, constituting the so-called " heart- 
scar.'^ Pigment and calcareous deposits may be present in 
them. The affected heart wall becomes very thin in places 
and may bulge forming a so-called aneurysm. Fatty degener- 
ation may be present. The heart may show hypertrophy 
with dilatation. 

ACUTE ENDOCARDITIS. 

Definition.— An acute inflammation of the endocardium, 
especially involving the part covering the valves. This con- 
dition occurs very commonly in small animals, especially in 
dogs and birds. 

Etiology. — 1. The acute endocarditis in the majority of 
ciases results from infection, the toxins of a number of infec- 
tious diseases irritating the endocardium. The organisms 
(pus-producing organisms, bipolar bacillus, colon bacillus. 
Bacterium tuberculosis, etc.), or their toxins, are the ones 
most commonly accused. An acute, primary, infectious 
endocarditis is observed occasionally; in the majority of 
cases, however, it occurs secondary to other diseases, pyemia 
and septicemia usually producing it. It develops often also 
after abscesses, wounds on the skin, abscesses in the internal 
organs, septic metritis, sapremia, etc. The organisms or 
their products (toxins) are carried by the blood to the endo- 
cardium where they become lodged, esi)ecially along the 



86 DISEASES OF THE HEART 

edge of the valves. They propagate, produce irritation, and 
assisted by the mechanical action of the valves, an active 
inflammatory reaction is soon established. The inflammation 
spreads to the other parts of the endocardium and may cause 
a general endocarditis. The rapidity of the process depends 
upon the virulency of the infection or the amount of the 
toxins present. 

2. Spread of the inflammation from adjacent structures 
or organs may produce the condition, such as from a myo- 
carditis, pericarditis, pleuritis, or a pneumonia. 

3. There are several predisposing conditions which should 
be considered: (a) Chilling the surface of the body, such as 
exposure to cold, or cold baths, carelessness in thoroughly 
drying the skin of animals after baths, etc., make them more 
susceptible to infection by reducing resistance. 

(6) In old animals degenerative changes of the heart 
muscle, valves, etc., make them less resistant. 

(c) Young puppies, chicks, kittens, from hereditary influ- 
ences, often favor the development of the condition. 

(d) During convalescence from long-continued diseases 
there is a predisposition to endocarditis. 

(e) Traumatic conditions over the region of the heart 
(kicks, blows, fractured ribs, etc.). 

4. Mineral poisons (mercury, phosphorus, etc.) or some 
drugs administered in large doses, or for too long a period, 
produce direct irritation to the endocardium, or predispose 
to the condition. 

In the etiology of endocarditis, infection must always be 
regarded as the principal causative factor. 

Necropsy.— Macroscopically two forms of acute endocar- 
ditis are recognized, viz.: 

(a) Endocarditis Valmdaris Verrucosa.— Thh is charac- 
terized by small enlargements, about the size of a millet 
seed, on the free edges of the valves, on the tendons and 
papillary muscles. They are nodular, wart-like in appear- 
ance, grayish-white or whitish-yellow in color, and their 
surface covered with blood-stained or colorless stratified 
epithelium. These growths may develop into large polypous 
proliferations, which often cause stenosis of the openings 



ACUTE ENDOCARDITIS 87 

and insufficiency of the valves of the heart. The endocar- 
dium in general is swollen, opaque, reddened somewhat, and 
covered with a thin coagulum; small hemorrhagic foci are 
found often in the subendocardial tissue, as well as between 
the fibers of the heart muscle. 

(b) Endocarditis Ulcerosa.— This is the more severe form 
of the condition, characterized by necrosis and ulceration 
of the margins of the valves and other portions of the endo- 
cardium. The ulcers are usually well defined, isolated and 
vary considerably in size from a pea to several times larger. 
They are covered with friable, discolored, necrotic masses. 
These masses are often torn loose by the circulating blood 
and are carried to the other organs, even to the heart itself, 
forming metastatic abscesses. In dogs endocarditis verru- 
cosa is very commonly found on postmortem and although 
the lesions may be extensive no marked symptoms were 
noted during life. The aortic or bicuspid valves are most 
often affected. 

Symptoms. —The symptoms of acute endocarditis vary 
considerably, depending to a great extent upon the cause, 
and the nature and extent of the inflammatory process. 

The early symptoms are those of a greatly disturbed heart 
action, which is at first palpitating and irregular; later the 
beat is diffuse. The number of heart beats sometimes exceeds 
that of the pulse (Frohner) . The heart beat is often so tumul- 
tuous, especially in dogs, that the entire body is shaken and 
can be observed some distance from the animal. 

The pulse is very rapid, intermittent, irregular, and in the 
later stages becomes imperceptible. The frequency in dogs 
will be 120-300, and in other animals even more rapid. The 
heart muscle is at first normal, but soon becomes abnormal, 
the sounds often blended to a single sound. Later, charac- 
teristic endocardial bruits are heard, a blowing, stenotic 
(systolic) noise occurring with the first heart sound, and at 
times a prolonged rustling and vibrating sound occurs at 
diastole. 

The temperature in the early stages is always high (103°- 
105° F.), but in the dog it becomes normal or subnormal. 
Cats have a high temperature, which remains high for a 



88 DISEASES OF THE HEART 

longer period than in the dog. The respirations are acceler- 
ated, the dyspnea similar to that of pneumonia, a disease with 
which it is sometimes confused in making a diagnosis. 

In the later stages of the condition, circulatory disturbances 
are quite prominent. These are manifested by cyanosis, 
venous pulse, edema of the lungs, etc. In the septic form a 
hemorrhagic diathesis appears with hemorrhages from the 
membranes, bloody urine, etc. As general symptoms, 
depression, weakness, etc., come on rapidly, the animal often 
shows complete prostration. 

Diagnosis.— Acute endocarditis is quite difficult to recog- 
nize as the symptoms are similar to other diseases of the heart. 
It may be confused with any acute febrile disease having a 
sudden onset (septicemia, inflammation of the brain, pneu- 
monia, etc.). A careful examination of the heart is always 
necessary for a diagnosis. It is often very difficult, and in 
some cases quite impossible to distinguish between acute 
endocarditis and myocarditis, with which it is very closely 
associated. Between the two forms of endocarditis it is 
almost impossible to differentiate. In the ulcerous form the 
onset is more rapid than in the verrucose, and sometimes the 
primary seat of infection can be located. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable, especially in the 
ulcerous form. Complete recovery is rare. The valves are 
usually left permanently impaired resulting in valvular 
insufficiency. 

The course of the disease varies. It is sometimes very 
acute, ending in death in a few hours or days (endocarditis 
ulcerosa). Or the condition may last for several days or 
weeks, eventually developing into the chronic form (endo- 
carditis valvularis verrucosa) . 

Treatment.— The animals should be kept in an absolutely 
quiet place avoiding all excitement or movement. 

In the early stages (in dogs especially) cold compresses 
should be applied over the region of the heart (ice-bag or 
cold water compress). These should be changed as often 
as necessary. 

Regulate the action of the heart by the use of digitalis, or 
if the heart is very weak, it should be stimulated by the use 



HYPERTROPHY AND DILATATION OF THE HEART 89 

of alcohol, caffein citrate or ether subcutaneously. To reduce 
the temperature acetanilid (dog 0.2-0.5; cat 0.05-0.1) should 
be given twice daily. 

In endocarditis from rheumatic conditions, salicylic acid 
or sodium salicylate (dog 0.2-0.5; cat 0.05-0.1) should be 
administered twice daily. 

When general weakness is well marked, stimulants must 
be administered according to the needs of the patient. 
Camphor, ether, or atropin are best for this purpose. 

HYPERTROPHY AND DILATATION OF THE HEART. 

Definition.— Hypertrophy is an enlargement of the heart 
due to a thickening of its musculature; dilatation is an 
increase in the size of the heart from an enlargement of its 
cavities. From a clinical standpoint a distinction between 
them cannot be made as they nearly always coexist. Hyper- 
trophy is an active enlargement of the heart, while dilatation 
is a passive one. 

Etiology.— Generally speaking the causes of hypertrophy 
of the heart are those conditions which interfere with the 
circulation of the blood and thus increase the blood pressure. 
The follow^ing are the most common: 

(a) Increased physical exertion. This occurs in dogs used 
for hunting (fox hounds, greyhounds) . 

(b) Adhesions between the pericardium and heart inter- 
fering with the heart action. 

(c) Obstruction to the free circulation through the arteries, 
such as aneurysms of the aorta, stenosis of the aorta, thrombi, 
atheromatous and arteriosclerotic processes, etc. 

(d) Defects in the valves of the heart (chronic endocar- 
ditis). 

(e) Diseases of the lungs, such as chronic interstitial 
pneumonia (common in the dog), adhesions, exudations, 
abscesses, chronic bronchitis, which increase the blood 
pressure through the right heart. 

(/) Chronic inflammation of the liver, kidneys, etc., by 

impeding the free circulation of blood (connnon in old dogs). 

Ig) Dilatation of the heart usually follows hypertroph}', 



90 DISEASES OF THE HEART 

the hypertrophied heart eventually growing weaker and 
becoming distended by the abnormally increased blood 
pressure. It may also develop in an acute form after acute 
diseases of the lungs, as the circulation through the right 
heart is greatly interfered with. 

Necropsy.— In both hypertrophy and dilatation the heart 
is enlarged, in hypertrophy the increase in the thickness of 
the walls, in dilatation in an enlargement of its cavities. 

(a) True hypertrophy of the heart appears in several 
forms, depending upon whether it is general or local, i. e., 
involving a whole ventricle, or circumscribed affecting only 
some of the papillary muscles. The left heart is most fre- 
quently affected. In hypertrophy the shape of the heart 
will vary. When the left heart is involved it appears elon- 
gated, cylindrical; when the right heart, it is flatter and 
broader than normal. If the whole heart is hypertrophied 
it assumes a round or oval form and is increased in size. The 
walls are usually two or three times the normal thickness, 
the muscles firmer, tougher, darker red in color, and the inter- 
stitial connective tissue occasionally shows marked prolifera- 
tion. Sometimes areas of fatty degeneration are noted on the 
surface. 

(6) In dilatation of the heart the cavities are found much 
larger than normal, and the walls thinner and weaker. In 
the active form of dilatation the walls are stronger than in 
the passive where they are relaxed and distended. Dilatation 
appears oftener in the right heart than in the left. The 
structure of the muscles may be normal. Usually, however, 
the organ is anemic, friable, the musculature yellowish- 
brown in color, often very thin, and due to a complete atrophy 
of the muscle, in some areas the wall is almost transparent. 

Symptoms.— In true hypertrophy of the heart, especially 
compensatory, the development is often so gradual that it 
may exist for a long period without producing marked symp- 
toms. In severe cases, when accompanying other diseases, it 
is characterized by a strong, full pulse, very loud, clear heart 
sounds, and an increase in the area of cardiac dulness. Due 
to the coexistence of dilatation the symptoms which charac- 
terize hypertrophy are rarely noted in practice. The most 



HYPERTROPHY AND DILATATION OF THE HEART 91 

prominent symptom of hypertrophy with dilatation is the 
extension of cardiac duhiess, which in dogs may reach as far 
back as the last rib, or even to the false ribs. 

Dyspnea, palpitation, disturbances in the circulation, 
dizziness, etc., are resulting symptoms. A prominent sign 
is the throbbing of the heart, which often shakes the whole 
body and may be seen quite a distance from the animal. 
The heart sounds are usually irregular, the first sound loud, 
metallic and somietimes vibrating; the second sound very 
weak and often imperceptible. The slightest exertion will 
produce a very rapid heart action. The pulse is weak. A 
venous pulse is common in old dogs. Ultimately, due to 
insufficient heart action, general cyanosis, ascites, hydro- 
thorax, etc., develop. 

Diagnosis.— Care should be taken not to confuse hyper- 
trophy and dilatation with diseases of the lungs, and other 
affections of the heart. The increase in the area of cardiac 
dulness, the abnormally loud, systolic sound, arhythmic 
pulse, and tendency for ascites and edemas are all charac- 
teristic of dilatation of the heart. A hard, full pulse with 
increased areas of dulness points to hypertrophy of the heart. 

These conditions usually can be distinguished from val- 
vular defects by the absence of the characteristic bruits. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in simple hypertrophy of the heart. 
Unfavorable in dilatation of the heart, except in the very 
acute cases. 

Treatment.— Absolute rest and quiet should always be 
insisted upon. It is important to remove the causes of these 
conditions if possible. 

(a) In hypertrophy of the heart with hyperkinesis, seda- 
tives such as potassium iodid (dogs 0.2-0.8; cats 0.05-0.10) 
to act as a general sedative may be used for one or two doses. 

(6) In hypertrophy complicated by dilatation, with a 
weak, feeble heart action, cardiac tonics and stinuilants are 
indicated. Digitalis fluidextract (dogs 0.1-0.3, cats half 
the quantity) is probably the most important drug for this 
condition. These doses may be repeated as often as neces- 
sary. Good, nutritious food should be allowed at all times. 
General stimulants are to be used when necessary. 



92 DISEASES OF THE HEART 

RUPTURE OF THE HEART. 

Etiology. — (a) Traumatic influences (kicks, fractured ribs, 
being run over, falling, etc.). (b) Diseases of the muscular 
walls of the heart (abscesses, fatty degeneration and infiltra- 
tion, endocarditis and myocarditis, atheromatous degenera- 
tions of the aortic walls at their origin, etc.). (c) Shock 
from operations, and other conditions and diseases. 

Symptoms.— In most cases the animal dies apoplectic. 
In cases where the rupture is very small, symptoms of internal 
hemorrhage are noticeable. Death in these cases, however, 
usually occurs in a few hours. 

Treatment.— No treatment can be given in this condition. 



PART III. 
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT. 



CHAPTER I. 
DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 

Examination.— The examination of the oral cavity requires 
good Hght (daylight) or in some cases artificial light (electric 
bulb with reflector) is necessary where a careful examination 
is to be made. In docile animals the mouth can be opened 
by pressing the lips against the teeth above and below causing 
the animal to open the jaws. For protracted examination 
it is necessary to hold the mouth open by the use of tapes 
►placed just back of the canines, one tape above and one below, 
which are grasped by an assistant ; or a mouth speculum may 
be used. In vicious animals an anesthetic should be employed 
(morphin for dogs; ether for cats). For examination of the 
posterior part of the cavity, the tongue should be depressed 
with a spatula, or pulled well forward with the fingers or 
blunt forceps. In examining the mouth, the following 
should be observed: 

(a) Odor.—kn offensive odor is noted from retained 
or decomposed food; ulcerative or gangrenous stomatitis; 
gangrene of the lungs; fetid bronchitis; acute and chronic 
gastritis; caries of the teeth; roup in birds. The odor is 
often characteristic and readily distinguished. In some 
poisonings the odor of the drug is evident (carbolic acid, 
hydrocyanic acid, etc.). 

Q)) Secretions.— Secretion is diminished in all acute febrile 
conditions; in some poisonings (belladonna, atropin). Secrc- 



94 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH 

tion is increased in parotitis; inflammatory conditions of the 
mouth; injuries; foreign bodies; poisons (calomel); eruption 
of teeth in puppies; following injections of pilocarpin. An 
abnormal quantity of saliva is noted in the mouth in dys- 
phagia. The saliva which flows from the mouth is in clear 
strands or in the form of foam from masticatory movements. 

(c) The Mucous Membranes.— An anemic or pale condition 
is found in chronic constitutional diseases; intestinal para- 
sites; skin parasites, especially in birds; severe hemorrhage. 
A hyperemic or congested condition is noticed in all acute 
inflammatory conditions; in acute infectious diseases with 
elevation of temperature; occurs during the course of gas- 
tritis. Cyanosis occurs from chronic heart diseases; inter- 
ference with respiration or the local circulation. A blue line 
is seen around the gums in lead poisoning. 

(d) Foreign Bodies.— A careful examination should be 
made for foreign bodies which often become imbedded in 
the mucous membrane or around the tongue or forced in 
between the teeth. In cats fishbones, needles or pins are 
often found in the posterior part of the mouth. 

(e) Neoplasms .—TsiipiWonisitSi are frequently seen on the 
margins of the lips or on the mucous membrane in various 
parts of the mouth. Retention cysts often occur under the 
tongue (submaxillary gland), inner surface of the lips and 
cheeks (buccal glands). Other tumors are occasionally 
found. In all cases where the mouth is held open, whether 
from complete or partial paralysis or foreign bodies, dumb 
rabies should be suspected and the examination made with 
care. 

STOMATITIS. 

Several varieties of stomatitis are met with in practice as 
follows: (a) Catarrhal; (b) ulcerative; (c) gangrenous; (d) 
phlegmonous; (e) parasitic. 

Catarrhal Stomatitis.— Definition.— An acute or chronic 
inflammatory condition of the mucous membrane of the 
mouth. 

Etiology.— Mech a 7iical.— Injuries from foreign bodies or 
sharp material in the food (bones, etc.) ; from irritation due 



STOMATITIS 95 

to tartar around the teeth; dentition; weed hairs penetrating 
the membrane (seen in hunting dogs after running in fields) . 

(7/^em^caL— Irritating medicinal agents administered in 
concentrated form; poisons (carbolic acid, arsenic, mercury, 
etc.) ; decomposed food which has been retained in the mouth; 
internal administration of calomel or lead compounds in 
too large doses or for too long a time. 

Thermic— Yiot food or drink. 

Infectious.— It occurs in the suckling young of bitches 
affected with infectious mammitis; accompanies infectious 
diseases (septicemia, distemper in dogs and cats, diphtheria 
and roup in birds) ; usually present during the course of gas- 
tritis, some of the toxins when absorbed into the circulation 
are secreted with the saliva and thus cause irritation to the 
oral mucous membrane; produced by extension of inflamma- 
tion from other parts (pharynx, larynx and salivary glands) . 

Chronic constitutional diseases (rachitis, anemia and 
leukemia) are predisposing factors. 

Pathology. —There is at first a superficial redness and dry- 
ness of the mucous membrane followed by an increased secre- 
tion and swelling. This secretion collects around the teeth 
and on the tongue in the form of a dirty gray or brown coat- 
ing. The lips often become fissured and ulcerated. 

Symptoms.— The animal shows pain during mastication 
and has an increased thirst. On direct examination the 
mucous membranes are seen to be red, swollen, and covered 
with mucus. The redness may be in spots or diffuse, depend- 
ing on the cause. Saliva often flows from the mouth or hangs 
in strings from the lips. The swelling of the mucous mem- 
brane may occlude ducts of the buccal glands, forming cysts 
which appear as small gray nodules on the inner surface of 
the lips. Quite frequently there is an edematous condition 
of the mucous membrane. The upper surface of the tongue 
shows a brown or greenish-brown discoloration. In cats it 
is slightly yellow, and the papillse are enlarged and quite 
prominent. In birds the epithelium is thickened, tongue 
dry, and a pseudomembrane is often noticed. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is made by the absence of general 
symptoms, the inflamed and sensitive mucous membrane 
and the characteristic conditions noted above. 



96 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH 

Prognosis.— Favorable in primary cases, healing occurring 
in about one week; in secondary cases it depends on the 
causative disease. 

Tie&tmeTit.— Dietetic— The animal should be fed warm 
liquid food in small amounts. 

Medical. — The use of antiseptic mouth washes is indicated 
(boric acid 2 per cent., alum or tannic acid 1 per cent., 
vinegar and water 1-10); in the severe chronic form direct 
application of silver nitrate (1-2 per cent.) may be found 
useful. Tincture of myrrh applied direct to the gums is very 
useful as a deodorant and antiseptic. 

Surgical,— B.em.0Ye foreign bodies and tartar from around 
the teeth, using a curette. 

Ulcerative Stomatitis.— Fe^it? Stomatitis. Stomacace. Sore 
J/oz/^/z.— Definition.- An acute inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the mouth resulting in the formation of ulcers, 
which appear most commonly on the margins of the gums. 

Etiology.— This disease is found in weak, anemic dogs and 
cats. It also frequently develops during the course of dis- 
temper, rachitis and other constitutional diseases. It is 
found commonly in old dogs and cats with diseases of the 
teeth (caries), especially when these animals are insufficiently 
nourished. The exact causes producing this necrosis of the 
tissues are not definitely known. The character of the dis- 
ease process points to infection. In man a similar disease is 
contagious. The Bacillus septicus has been isolated from 
the diseased area in dogs, and the Bacillus necrosis and 
Bacillus coli communis in cats, but have not been proved to 
be the specific cause. Lack of cleanliness in the mouth, 
diseased teeth and accumulations around them favor the 
occurrence of the disease. The internal administration of 
mercury in large or long continued doses, may produce a 
similar condition of the gums. 

Pathology.— The gums at first are swollen and dark red 
in color, but soon become pale yellowish and necrotic. The 
epithelium is destroyed, deep ulcers form, suppuration ensues 
and the teeth may become loose and fall out. 

Symptoms.— In the early stages it begins as a severe 
stomatitis, the gums bleed freely, are swollen and partly 



STOMATITIS 97 

envelop the teeth, but as their margins ulcerate and recede 
the teeth become more and more exposed. The ulcerative 
process may spread to the contiguous parts destroying much 
tissue. Salivation is profuse and the odor of the breath very 
fetid. Chewing and swallowing are difficult. The tempera- 
ture is usually slightly increased. In severe cases the afferent 
lymph glands are enlarged and symptoms of septicemia 
may be noted. 

Diagnosis. —This condition should be distinguished from 
scorbutus. The chief differential features are the absence 
of general symptoms and the free bleeding of the gums, both 
of which are more marked in scorbutus. The anamnesis will 
usually difTerentiate ulcerative stomatitis from poisons; the 
characteristic general symptoms of the latter are also evident. 

Prognosis.— A favorable termination of the disease is only 
to be expected in youpg, healthy animals with mild affection. 
In such cases, the course is from one to three weeks. In 
severe cases in weak anemic animals the prognosis is unfavor- 
able. Complete healing is, however, rare; death may occur 
suddenly from septicemia. 

Treatment.— ilfecZ^'ca/.-Potassium chlorate seems to be 
nearly a specific for this condition. It may be administered 
internally (0.3-0.6) three times daily, and also applied as a 
mouth wash. As potassium chlorate is toxic, its use should 
not be prolonged. When there is much fetor, a solution of 
potassium permanganate (2 per cent.) can be used as a 
mouth wash and silver nitrate (2 per cent.) applied to the 
ulcers. In the mercurial stomatitis, a subvariety of the 
ulcerative, the treatment consists in the removal of the 
cause and the use of antiseptic mouth washes. 

Surgical. — Examine the teeth carefully and remove all 
incrustation. Loose teeth should be extracted. 

Gangrenous Stomatitis.— Ca^iA'^r of the Mouth.— Defini- 
tion.— A disease of the mouth characterized by a rapidly 
progressing gangrene, starting on the gums or lips and pro- 
ducing extensive sloughing. 

Etiology.— This disease is usually seen in young animals 
(puppies, kittens, etc.) which ha\c been ke})t under very 
unsanitary conditions; or in older animals convalescent 
7 



98 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH 

from infectious diseases. It is evidently an infectious dis- 
ease, probably due to the Bacillus necrophorus. The lack 
of resistance especially in young animals favors the develop- 
ment of the organisms. Accumulations of filth in the kennels 
and injuries to the tissues are predisposing causes. 

Pathology. — The gangrenous area has the appearance of a 
corroded surface under which the mucous membrane seems 
transformed into a dry, finely granular or firm mass. It is 
grayish-yellow in color and bordered by a zone of thickened 
tissue, slightly reddened and somewhat granulated. The 
necrotic tissue is very adherent and can be only partially 
peeled off. The condition may extend to the underlying 
tissues and even involve the bones. 

Symptoms.— Slight salivation and a disinclination to take 
food are the first symptoms noticed. An examination of the 
mouth at this time may show an area of inflammation or 
possibly an erosion. The latter rapidly increases in size and 
depth, forming a sharply circumscribed, or at times diffuse 
area of necrosis, which continuing to spread, may involve 
any of the adjacent tissues. It often perforates the cheeks 
forming a fistulous opening, or it may penetrate the hard 
palate and produce a. greenish-yellow nasal discharge. With 
the involvement of the nasal passages, the larynx or trachea 
respiration is disturbed. When life is prolonged for a week 
or more, necrotic foci may be established in the lungs, giving 
rise to symptoms of bronchopneumonia. As the disease 
progresses, salivation becomes profuse, deglutition difficult 
and the swollen tongue often protrudes from the open mouth. 
A very offensive odor is exhaled. When the infection becomes 
general (septicemia), the temperature is elevated (104°- 
106° F.) and the animal shows extreme weakness. Diarrhea 
is not uncommon and indicates an invasion of the gastro- 
intestinal tract. 

Diagnosis.— This is made by the rapid spread of the disease 
in the tissues of the mouth, fetid odor and the general 
symptoms. 

Prognosis.— Ordinarily this disease shows no tendency to 
a spontaneous recovery, and if untreated death usually 
results. If taken early, however, it usually responds to 



STOMATITIS 99 

treatment. Under such favorable conditions the prognosis 
is good, recovery occurring in twelve to fifteen days. 

Treatment.— Diefei^ic— As the animal refuses food on 
account of the pain when swallowing it should be forced to 
take some nourishment (warm milk can be given puppies 
and kittens; milk and soups to older animals). 

Surgical.— In those cases where the lesions are accessible, 
the treatment consists in removing all the necrotic tissue with 
a curette. This exposes the causative agent, an anaerobe, 
to the air which inhibits its growth and development. 

Medical.— The skin around the head, eyes and mouth 
must be thoroughly cleaned with antiseptic washes (boric 
acid 2 per cent., potassium permanganate 1-250). The 
direct application of carbolic acid (5 per cent.), or Lugol's 
solution to the exposed areas has proved quite beneficial. 
In obstinate cases silver nitrate (2 per cent.) may be used. 

Prevention. — Prevention of this disease consists in a thor- 
ough disinfection once daily for a few days, of the mouth and 
nose of those animals that have been exposed and are pre- 
disposed by the eruption of the first teeth or the shedding 
of the milk teeth; or through association with affected animals. 
All filth should be removed from the kennel and disinfectants 
freely used. 

Phlegmonous Stomatitis.— Definition.— An acute phleg- 
monous inflammation of the mucous membranes of the 
mouth, lips and tongue. 

Etiology.— ilf^c/iamcai.— Foods containing irritating mate- 
rials. In hunting dogs sharp projections, such as thorns, 
spikes, nettles, hairs, etc., on grasses and weeds are causes. 

Chemical.— Carholic acid, alkalies, ammonia, croton oil, 
etc., when concentrated, produce an intense inflammation 
and swelling of the membranes. 

Infectious. — It is produced secondarily during the course 
of diseased processes of neighboring organs (infectious 
pharyngitis) ; also secondary to infectious diseases (distemj)or 
in dogs and cats and diphtheria in birds). 

Pathology.— The mucous membrane is reddened, edematous 
and covered with a thick tenacious mucus. The subcu- 
taneous tissues are infiltrated with serum. Desquanuitiou 
of the epithelium is often noticed from the intense irritation. 



100 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH 

Symptoms.— The disease begins T^ith swelling, redness and 
a very painful condition of the mucous membrane. The 
local temperature is accelerated. The lips and cheeks 
become swollen, the lower lip hangs down and strands of 
saliva hang from the corners of the mouth. Later the mucous 
membranes on the inner surface of the lips, cheeks and the 
back part of the mouth are bluish-red in color. The gums 
are swollen and dark red, the tongue becomes much thickened 
which interferes with deglutition and forces the mouth open. 
In severe cases following infectious diseases, the submaxillary 
and sublingual lymph glands are swollen and very painful 
to the touch. The general symptoms depend largely upon 
the primary condition. 

Diagnosis.— Is made by the acute inflammatory condition 
of the mucous membranes ^4th the swelling of the lips, 
cheeks and tongue. The anamnesis in some cases vn\\ 
materially assist in making the diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— Usually favorable; in the secondary cases it 
depends on primary condition. 

Treatment.— 7) z€/^/zc.— All solid food should be Tsdthheld 
for a few days and small quantities of liquid foods given 
(milk, meat broth, etc.). 

Medical.— The mouth should be. thoroughly cleansed tTS'ice 
daily with antiseptic and astringent solutions (alum 1-250; 
tannic acid 1-250; potassium permanganate 1-250). 

Parasitic Stomatitis.— r/zr?/5/z. Soor. AjMi a.— Detnition. 
— An inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth 
produced by the Oidium albicans. 

Etiology.— The Oidium albicans (Monilla Candida, Sac- 
charomyces albicans) is the exciting cause of this disease 
which is found occasionally in healthy young animals, most fre- 
quently in birds. This fungus is -^ddespread in nature, occur- 
ring especially on decaying vegetable matter as a saprophyte. 
The mycelia are composed of cylindrical cells, 1—1 microns 
wide and 10-20 microns long. The filaments show branching 
and the outer ends are rounded off or club shaped. , The 
rounded ends often contain oval, highly refractive bodies, 
the gonidia or spores, which are also found free between the 
filaments. If the free spores come in contact with the oral 



STOMATITIS 101 

mucosa, in which there are shght epithehal defects, they may 
develop and lead to the formation of thrush spots and pseudo- 
membranes. In some cases the filaments and spores may 
penetrate deeper into the tissues, or by metastasis involve 
the internal organs. Frequently in birds, the spores are 
taken into the crop where they develop and produce tj^ical 
thrush lesions. Damp, warm rooms poorly ventilated and 
filthy, favor the growth of this fungus. 

Pathology.— The affection begins with diffuse redness of 
the mucosa and the formation of a glistening or shiny 
adhesive exudate of grayish appearance. Small white or 
yellowish dots next appear, which stand out prominently 
against the hyperemic background. These patches may be 
quite large and when removed the underlying mucosa is 
congested and eroded. The disease usually begins on the 
tongue or inner parts of the cheeks, from where it spreads 
to other parts of the mouth. In severe cases it may extend 
to the pharynx, esophagus, or even in fowls to the crop and 
intestines. The microscope reveals filaments, spores, epi- 
thelial cells and pus. 

Symptoms.— The general symptoms are depression, emacia- 
tion and loss of strength. On direct examination of the mouth 
an acid odor will be detected and the characteristic lesions or 
spots will be seen on the mucosa. These may be in the form 
of white or yellowish spots, or they may coalesce forming a 
superficial felt-like membrane which can be readily scraped 
off. Similar membranes form in the esophagus and crop 
interfering with the appetite and nutrition. This condition 
leads to cachexia and death, which is often preceded by 
convulsions. 

Diagnosis.— The disease is readily distinguished from other 
forms of stomatitis by the absence of acute inflammation. 
The diagnosis is made positive by the finding of the filaments 
or spores of the fungus in the deposits on the membranes. 
■The clinical appearance may be confused with the condition 
due to the aspergillus fungi. (See Aspergillosis.) 
y Prognosis.— When the disease is localized on the mucous 
membrane of the mouth, the prognosis is favorable, but when 
it extends to the esophagus and crop, treatment is* unsatis- 
factory. 



102 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH 

Treditment.— Dietetic— Good nutritious food should be 
2:iven (small meat scraps, oatmeal and milk, etc.) to sustain 
the strength. 

Surgical.— CarehiWv curette all the accessible lesions and 
wash with antiseptic solutions (boric acid 2 per cent., mer- 
curic chlorid 1-1000, the latter used with care that it may 
not be swallowed). When the disease extends to the crop, 
give enough boric acid (2 per cent.) solution to distend the 
latter, then massage it thoroughly with the head held down 
so the contents will be forced out of the mouth. Repeat this 
daily until the appetite is improved. 



BENIGN NEOPLASMS OF THE MOUTH. 

PapiUomata.— These tumors occm- on the mucous mem- 
brane of the mouth and occasionally on the margins of the 
lips and sometimes they apparently assume a contagious 
character. 

Symptoms.— They are noticed as small, isolated or confluent 
growths, usually pedunculated, of a whitish color and often 
rough (cauliflower-like) on their surface. They are found 
most commonly at the juncture of the mucous membrane 
and the skin, and on the inner surface of the lips, but may be 
generally distributed over the oral mucosa. They rarely inter- 
fere with mastication, but when present in large numbers 
or masses they may cause some salivation and from the 
•decomposed food collecting around them a A^ery disagreeable 
odor is emitted. 

Treatment.— These tumors frequently disappear in a short 
time without any treatment. However, it is best to remove 
them by clipping oft' with scissors. The mouth should be 
washed for a day or two with antiseptic solutions (alum 
1-250; potassium permanganate 1-250). Tannic acid (2 
per cent.) applied direct to small papillomata often causes 
them to slough oft' after a few applications. 

Fibromata.- These tumors are composed of connective 
tissue elements which may be a pure or mixed fibrous growth 



BENIGN NEOPLASMS OF THE MOUTH 103 

containing cartilage and sometimes spicula of bone. They 
have their origin in the submucous tissue or the periosteum 
of the bone, and usually occur as a single growth. 

Symptoms.— The tumor is found growing at the edge of the 
gums in the form of a hard, reddish enlargement varying 
in size from a pea to a walnut. Its growth is slow often 
requiring months to develop into sufficient size to be notice- 
able. The slow growth and firm consistency assist in dis- 
tinguishing it from any of the malignant growths. 

Treatment.— Complete extirpation and cauterization of the 
wound with silver nitrate or thermocautery are curative. 

Osteoma.— These tumors are found growing from the peri- 
osteum of the maxillae. They are composed of osseous mate- 
rial- and frequently develop after injuries to the periosteum. 

Symptoms.— Osteomas appear as very hard enlargements 
firmly attached at their base. As a rule the skin or mucous 
membrane is not adherent over them. Their hardness and 
slow growth readily distinguish them from malignant tumors. 

Treatment.— Expose the enlargement by an incision through 
the soft tissues and dissect down to the base, when it may 
be removed if not too diffuse, by the use of bone forceps or a 
small bone chisel. Curette the surface until smooth and 
suture the skin over it. After-treatment as an ordinary 
wound, using antiseptics to cleanse it daily. 

Retention Cysts.— Ramila. — These are enlargements ap- 
pearing in the buccal cavity from a stoppage of the ducts of 
glands which discharge their secretions into the mouth. Co- 
hesion of openings occurs from infiammations of the mucous 
membrane, swelling, etc., partially or completely closing the 
duct. At the same time the glands continue to secrete their 
fluids which distend the ducts forming the enlargements. 
Closure or obstruction of Wharton's duct produces an exten- 
sive enlargement under the tongue. The most common 
retention cysts, however, are from the ducts of the buccal 
or sublingual glands. When the obstruction is complete 
the secretions, as they collect, burrow downward along the 
neck producing an enlargement which appears subcutane- 
ously in the submaxillary region, or may extend to the supe- 



104 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH 

rior part of the neck, appearing as a soft fluctuating enlarge- 
ment. There is an absence of inflammatory symptoms and 
the skin is not adherent over it. These cysts develop slowly 
in contrast to a rapidly developing hematoma; the skin is 
adherent in the latter. The contents of the cysts can be 
obtained by the use of a large aspirating needle or trocar 
and examined. The fluid which flows out very slowly is a 
thick, viscid, honey-like material which makes the diagnosis 
positive. 

Treatment. — S?/r^zca/.— Complete removal of the cyst is 
hardly possible by excision, as the glandular secretion con- 
tinues, and when adhesion of the edges. of the wound takes 
place, another cyst will develop. The most satisfactory 
treatment consists in aspirating all of the contents and the 
injection of Lugol's solution or tincture of iodin to destroy 
the cyst wall and the secreting gland. The injection should 
be suflScient to distend the cyst so that some of it will be 
forced to gravitate into the gland to destroy it. This should 
be done every second or third day. As soon as the gland 
is destroyed, the secretions will stop, the gland will atrophy 
and the enlargement disappear. This usually takes place in 
three to four weeks. 

MAUGNANT NEOPLASMS OF THE MOUTH. 

Epitheliomata.— These tumors appear most commonly on 
the margin of the lips, involving the mucous membrane, 
subcutaneous tissue, muscles and skin. They occur most 
often in old animals. 

Symptoms.— In the beginning they are observed as small 
flat growths, which later have a tendency to show tdceration 
on the surface. The surface has a roughened, granulating 
appearance often covered with a thin dried mass. It grad- 
ually develops in size until it invades the entire lip and occa- 
sionally the maxilla^. Secondary enlargement of the cervical 
and submaxillary lymph glands is of common occurrence. 
Epithehomata are diagnosed clinically by their rapid, pro- 
gressive growth, roughened irregular surface and invasion 



MALIGNANT NEOPLASMS OF THE MOUTH 105 

of the entire lip. In cases where a satisfactory diagnosis can- 
not be made cUnically a small portion can be removed for 
microscopical examination. 

Treatment. — Surgical.— Complete excision early as pos- 
sible. When the tumor is small and involving the lip, a 
"V"-shaped incision should be made through the entire lip 
removing all of the tissue affected. The wound should be 
carefully sutured to bring the edges in direct apposition 
when healing will readily take place. In more diffuse and 
extensive growths complete excision is difficult but should 
be attempted if at all possible. When the lymph glands are 
involved treatment is usually unsatisfactory. After-treat- 
ment consists in the use of antiseptic washes. 

Sarcomata.— This tumor most commonly affects the 
maxillae, usually the superior maxilla, as it originates either 
in the periosteum, the medulla, or the endosteum of the bone. 
They are frequently quite large and often invade the nasal 
passages, the orbits and the sinuses. Metastatic processes 
are common in the adjacent lymph glands and occasionally 
a generalized sarcomatosis is produced. 

Symptoms.— The growth first appears as a rather firm, 
oval, reddish colored enlargement in close proximity to the 
maxilla. Later the surface becomes irregular, lobulated and 
covered with thickened mucous membrane. The tumor 
usually has a broad base rather firmly attached, but may 
in some cases be pedunculated. The growth is quite rapid, 
beginning as one enlargement around which eventually 
numerous secondary ones develop; later by confluence the 
base becomes broad. The teeth are often hidden by the 
growth or in some cases elevated from their position. 

Treatment.— The removal of the entire growth should be 
done as early as possible. Under general anesthesia, dissect 
out the tumor, using bone forceps, chisel or curette, being 
careful to get out all the affected tissue. When the alveoli 
are affected, extract the tooth and curette and cauterize the 
cavities to destroy, as far as possible, all the sarcomatous 
cells. When the lymph glands and the sinuses are involved 
treatment is practically impossible. 



106 . DISEASES OF THE MOUTH 

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE MOUTH. 

Foreign bodies in the mouth consist principally of such 
objects as are taken in the mouth with food or during play. 
Fragments of bone are most common. These either penetrate 
the soft tissues or are firmly lodged in between the teeth, or, 
if larger, may be between the rows of teeth. Splinters of 
wood and pieces of Tsare are usually found imbedded in the 
mucous membrane. Xeedles, pins and fish bones are also 
common, especially in cats. Birds often have grains of corn, 
sunflower seeds, etc., lodged under the tongue in the floor of 
the mouth. Hunting dogs when running through fields often 
have pieces of t^dgs or weeds forced in the mucous mem- 
brane of the mouth. Porcupine Iquills are common in locali- 
ties where these animals abound. 

Symptoms.— "When the foreign body causes much incon- 
venience, the animal makes persistent attempts to remove 
it by parsing at the mouth ^ith the feet and shaking the head. 
Masticatory movements may be continuous or the mouth 
may be held open, with some salivation. Smaller objects 
as needles, pins, etc., may not produce prominent sjTnptoms 
at first and the former may only be noticed by the presence 
of a thread attached. Food and drink are either entirely 
refused or feeble attempts made at eating. Thorough inspec- 
tion of the mouth reveals the foreign body or the wound 
in the membrane where it entered. 

Treatment.— Ordinarily objects lodged between the teeth 
may be readily removed ^\'ith forceps. Imbedded objects 
should be observed closely to determine their chrection of 
entrance and removed in the opposite direction. Vicious 
animals, especially cats, should be etherized to render the 
operation safe. 



CHAPTER 11. 

DISEASES OF THE TEETH. 

Examination.— Examination of the teeth can be done by 
elevating the hps, which readily exposes them, or by the use 
of tapes or a mouth speculum to hold the mouth open (see 
examination of the mouth). Careful inspection should be 
made for malformations, fractures, incrustations of tartar 
and disease conditions. 



MALFORMATIONS OF THE TEETH. 

These are not common in small animals, only occasionally 
being seen as distortions of the skull bones so affecting the jaws 
that the teeth do not meet in proper relationship. This may 
result in excessively long teeth. A few instances of defective 
dentition are recorded. They are important only when they 
interfere with mastication and subsequent nutrition. Breeding 
has been carried to such an extent with some breeds (English 
bull, etc.) as to amount almost to a malformation of the max- 
illae with unusual relationship of the teeth in some individuals. 
Birds occasionally have a deformity of the beak rendering 
prehension of food difficult. 

Treatment. — >Si/r(/zca/.— Surgical intervention is possible 
only in rare cases to improve the appearance or condition. 
Prescribe a suitable diet when the animal is unable to masti- 
cate solid food (meat, etc., should be given in small pieees). 
Long teeth may be removed or the points clipped oft' with 
bone forceps. The long points of malformed beaks should 
be so shaped, using a shar]) knife, that they will assume a 
more normal form. 



108 DISEASES OF THE TEETH 

FRACTURES OF THE TEETH. 

Fractures of the teeth with exposure of the pulp cavity 
sometimes occur, especially in dogs, and are usually due to 
fighting, falls on hard surfaces, kicks (horses, etc.), being hit 
with hard objects; often occur during play in attempting to 
catch a ball or stone when thrown; also due to biting iron 
bars in their attempts to escape from cages. 

Treatment.— If the fractured tooth is painful, extract it. 
It is possible to have it filled. 

INCRUSTATIONS OF TARTAR. 

Tartar occurs quite commonly on the teeth of dogs and it 
is due to the precipitation of the carbonates, phosphates and 
some organic substances from their solution in the mouth 
secretions. It collects around the neck of the tooth close to 
the gingival border which is the least exposed part of the 
tooth, and therefore the deposits are not worn off by eating. 
By constant accretion, these deposits increase, producing an 
irritation to the gums and inflammation. As the process 
continues, it separates the gums from the teeth and often 
causes the teeth to loosen and fall out. In some severe cases, 
the tooth may be completely covered with the incrustations. 
The gums are reddened, swollen and painful, later showing 
ulceration. A foul odor is emitted from the mouth. 

Remove all deposits from the teeth with a curette or scaling 
instrument, being careful not to injure the gums. Extract all 
loose teeth. Tincture of myrrh applied to the gums is useful 
as an antiseptic, astringent and deodorant. As this condi- 
tion usually persists, these cases should have attention every 
few weeks. 

ALVEOLAR PERIOSTITIS. 

Pericementitis. Periodontitis. 

Definition.— This is an inflammation of the alveolar peri- 
osteum. 

Etiology.— It begins in most cases from the irritation pro- 
duced by a collection of tartar around the teeth. As the 



CARIES OF THE TEETH 109 

incrustation gradually increases, it causes separation of the 
gums from the teeth and this leads to suppuration of the peri- 
dental membrane at the neck of the tooth, and, as the process 
continues, the entire membrane becomes involved. 

Pathology.— The affected tooth is loosened, slightly raised 
frorh its alveolus, and, from disturbance to the vessels and 
nerves leading to loss of nutrition, it becomes discolored 
(dark or yellowish.) Injury to a tooth with exposure of the 
peridental membrane may also lead to a similar condition 
but in this case only one or a few teeth are affected while in 
the former several, or in severe cases the entire set is lost. 

Symptoms.— The animal either refuses food or takes only 
a small amount and this very carefully. Saliva flows freely 
and the mouth emits a foul odor. The gums are dark red 
(livid), swollen and bleed easily. Ulcerative stomatitis 
often accompanies this condition. 

Treatment.— Extract all loose teeth and remove incrusta- 
tions from the others. Disinfect the mouth daily with anti- 
septic solutions (potassium permanganate 1-250), or by 
direct application of tincture of myrrh to the gums. Extrac- 
tion may be accomplished by the use of dental forceps, a 
mouth speculum being necessary to open the mouth when 
molars are to be extracted but not necessary for the incisors. 
Grasp the tooth as far up the root as possible and for single 
fanged teeth, loosen with half turn twist each way, and molars 
with a pressure alternately inward and outward, care being 
taken to avoid breaking the roots. General anesthesia 
should be used when the animal is vicious. 

CARIES OF THE TEETH. 

Definition.— Caries is the true decomposition or disinte- 
gration of the dental tissues. It is rare in small animals. 

Etiology.— The process always commences on the surface 
of the tooth where the enamel is inferior or damaged, or at 
protected parts of the tooth where food particles lodge and 
decompose. 

Pathology.— The point where this begins may or may 
not be discolored, and as the dentin is disintegrated more 



110 DISEASES OF THE TEETH 

rapidly than the enamel, a ea\'ity is soon formed within the 
tooth but ha^'ing a small opening through the enamel. As 
this pi-ocess continues it opens the pulp cavity which becomes 
infected. As long as the opening through the enamel is free 
the pus will be discharged T^'ithout further complication but 
if it becomes closed with food particles, etc., an abscess 
develops at the root and the pus burrows out into the adja- 
cent parts, usually into the sinuses or may break do^m the 
sinus wall resulting in a maxillary fistula. The disintegra- 
tion of the dental tissue is brought about by chemical action 
from the lactic acid fermentation in the mouth. 

Symptoms.— This condition will be noticed only by careful 
inspection until the disintegrating process reaches the pulp 
cavity when it gives rise to sharp pain, depression of the head 
toward the affected side and careful mastication. When a 
fistula results the pain is not pronounced. Empyema of the 
sinuses often causes a distortion of the affected side and a 
dull sound when percussed. Suspect all fistulse opening in 
the maxillary region as ha\dng their origin in a carious tooth. 

Treatment.— Extract diseased tooth and cleanse the alveo- 
lus with antiseptic solution (boric acid 2 per cent.). If a 
fistula is present, it' is readily irrigated when the tooth is 
removed. Thorough irrigation through the entire tract 
should be done daily. Healing is usually rapid. 



CHAPTER III. ■ 
DISEASES OF THE TONGUE. 

Examination.— This can be readily done by opening the 
mouth (see examination of the mouth) and pulUng the tongue 
forward as far as possible with a blunt forceps or by a piece 
of tape wrapped around the free end of the tongue, using 
gentle traction. 

In paralysis of the tongue, it will be relaxed and protrude 
from one side of the mouth. The examination should be 
made for (a) foreign bodies, splinters of bone, needles, pins, 
etc., which often penetrate the tongue. (6) Rubber bands, 
pieces of bone or cartilage becoming fixed around the free 
portion of the tongue, (c) Inflammation of the tongue 
(glossitis), (d) Necrosis of the free portion of the tongue. 
(e) Ulcerative processes extending from the mucous mem- 
brane of the mouth. (/) Edema of the tongue occurring 
during the course of infectious diseases (distemper, etc.). 
(g) Inflammation of the glands in the posterior part of the 
tongue, (h) Deposits on the tongue. 

GLOSSITIS. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the tongue. 

Etiology.— ilf^c/iamca/.- Injuries by foreign bodies (pieces 
of bone, needles, etc.) which penetrate it; biting the tongue 
or being bitten by other animals or insects, cats being fre- 
quently bitten by rats or mice. 

Chemical.— Medicinsd substances taken in too concentrated 
form (carbolic acid, ammonia, etc.) or given for too long a 
period or in too large doses will lead to severe glossitis. 

Thermic— Wot foodstuff's or the tip of the tongue touclicd 
against hot objects. 



112 DISEASES OF THE TONGUE 

Infectious. —Occurs during the course of infectious dis- 
eases (distemper, etc.). Glossitis also usually accompanies 
the various forms of stomatitis. 

Pathology.— The mucous membrane is reddened, swollen 
and covered with a grayish-white membranous deposit. 
When foreign bodies are present at the point of -entrance, 
the tongue is swollen and edematous, later becoming a dark 
bluish color. In severe cases foci of gangrene are seen. 

Symptoms.— The animal refuses food or eats very carefully; 
the mouth is often held open ; saliva, sometimes streaked with 
blood, runs from the corners of the mouth. The swelling, 
may be so great that the tongue is protruded. Direct ex- 
amination reveals the swollen and reddened condition of the 
tongue and quite often foreign bodies are found imbedded in 
it or around the free end. As a rule no general symptoms 
are noticed except when due to infectious diseases. 

Prognosis.— The majority of cases terminate in recovery, 
depending somewhat on the cause and extent of the injury. 
When due to infectious diseases, the prognosis is less favor- 
able. 

Treatment.— Dietetic— ^Vhen the swelling interferes with 
mastication, soft or liquid foods should be given (milk, beef 
broth, etc.). 

Medical.— Antiseptic washes (boric acid 2 per cent., 
potassium permanganate 1-250, potassium chlorate 1-100) 
may be used several times daily. When there is severe 
swelling, astringent solutions are also indicated (alum 1 
per cent.). 

Surgical.— In very severe cases or where abscesses develop, 
make deep incisions in the substance of the tongue followed 
by the use of antiseptic solutions. 



GANGRENE OF THE TONGUE. 

Gangrenous Glossitis. 

Definition. —This is a gangrenous condition of the tongue 
which may involve the entire free end or appear as small 
rapidly spreading ulcers. 



GANGRENE OF THE TONGUE 113 

Etiology.— Mechanical.. — Obstruction to the circulation 
from foreign bodies is not uncommon. Rubber bands are 
occasionally slipped over the tongue by children; rings of 
cartilage from the trachea or aorta from cadavers upon 
which the dog has been feeding, have been found around the 
tongue. 

Infectious.— Gsingrene of the tongue may be caused by the 
Bacillus necrophorus and often is associated with gangrenous 
stomatitis. 

Chemical.— The action of concentrated drugs may be so 
severe as to cause a gangrene. 

Pathology.— When the tongue is encircled by foreign 
bodies which shut off the blood supply that part of the tongue 
anterior to the foreign body becomes swollen and in a few 
hours very dark and gangrenous and will slough off in three 
or four days. In cases of infection, the process begins as a 
small ulcer which rapidly extends and may involve the entire 
organ. Chemicals usually cause only small areas of gangrene 
which do not show a tendency to spread. 

Symptoms.— The animals refuse food and drink, and saUva 
flows freely. If the tongue is much swollen it may protrude 
from the mouth. The inconvenience causes the animal to 
appear depressed. General disturbance is not noticed in the 
early stages but later, from the absorption of the gangrenous 
toxihs, an elevation of temperature and symptoms of sapremia 
are seen. 

Diagnosis.— The presence of the foreign body around the 
tongue partly obscured by the swelling, or in infection the 
rapidly spreading ulcer. 

Prognosis.— This depends on the degree of compression 
by the foreign body, and the length of time it has been on 
the tongue. Complete obstruction of the blood supply for a 
few hours (4-6) will often result in loss of the tongue. The 
infectious form is favorable if treated early. 

Treatment.— Remove the cause if a foreign body. When 
due to infection or chemicals, remove the necrotic material 
with a curette and thoroughly cleanse with antiseptic solu- 
tions (see (langrenous Stomatitis.) After removing the 
foreign bodv from around the tongue a few hours should 
8 



114 DISEASES OF THE TONGUE 

be allowed for the establishment of the circulation and if it 
does not occur in that time, the affected part should be 
amputated. This must be done under general anesthesia. 
Fix the jaws open with a mouth speculum and draw the 
tongue forward, using blunt forceps or a tape suture through 
the healthy tissue to hold it. A pair of dull, heavy scissors 
can be used to remove the diseased part. A small ecraseur 
will also do. Control the excessive hemorrhage by twisting 
the artery with forceps or by ligation. An animal with part 
of the tongue removed will have difficulty in drinking, and 
water should be supplied in a vessel of sufficient depth to 
allow the mouth to be submerged or from a faucet placed at 
the height of the head. 



CHAPTER IV. 
DISEASES OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS. 

Examination. — 1 . The glands can be examined by palpa- 
tion for: (a) Enlargements (cysts, abscesses, tumors, etc.); 
(6) inflammations; (c) wounds; {d) fistulse. 

2. The character and the amount of the secretions. The 
normal secretion is a mixture of secretions from the parotid, 
submaxillary, sublingual and the mucous glands of the mouth. 
It is a thin, slightly viscid, opalescent fluid, having a feeble 
alkalin reaction and a specific gravity of 1005-1008. 

An increase in the salivary secretion is noticed in the follow- 
ing conditions: The different forms of stomatitis; dentition; 
chorea by reason of the increased masticatory movements; 
gastric ulcers; nausea; helminthiasis; severe pain; direct nerve 
stimulation either central or peripheral; uremia; mercurial 
poisoning; drugs such as pilocarpin which produce direct 
stimulation to the secretory nerve. 

The secretion of saliva is diminished in the following 
conditions : During the course of fevers (pneumonia, septic 
fever, etc.); after the use of atropin or belladonna; fright 
and excitement ; severe diarrheas ; cirrhosis of the liver when 
ascites is developing; atrophy of the salivary glands. 

PAROTITIS. 

Mumps. 

Definition.— An acute or chronic inflammation of the 
parotid gland. 

Etiology.— Mechanical.— Direct injuries to the gland by 
being run over by vehicles; struck with stones; kicks, etc.; 
pulling back when tied and the collar injuring the gland or 
by being caught in a door. 

CheviicaL— The internal administration of potassium iodic! 
in too large doses or the absorption of iodin from local appli- 



116 DISEASES OF THE SALIVARY GLAXDS 

cations will often prodnce it. Lead when given in large doses 
^^ill sometimes cause acute parotitis which may result in a 
chronic induration of the gland. Inflammations of the 
mticous membrane of the mouth from chemicals will reflexly 
and by absorption produce an inflammation of the glands. 
Obstruction of the ducts from chemical action or from other 
causes of stomatitis often leads to a chronic parotitis. From 
the retention of the secretions, the glands become enlarged 
and hard and may resemble tumor formation. 

Infectious.— The disease sometimes appears in the form 
of an epizootic which no doubt is caused by a specific organ- 
ism. A diplostreptococcus has been isolated from the gland 
and from Steno's duct during such epizootics. Other organ- 
isms have also been foimd but as yet none of them has 
proved specific. During the cotu-se of infectious diseases 
(distemper, etc.) the parotid is frequently infected resulting 
in an acute inflammation. Parotitis occurs as a secondary 
disease in pharyngitis, stomatitis and other local inflamma- 
tory conditions. Chronic parotitis results from repeated 
acute attacks or from obstruction to the ducts. 

Pathology.— The acute parotitis in the early stages begins 
with a swelling, congestion and serous infiltration of the 
interlobular connective tissue. Later small abscesses develop 
which become confluent forming one large abscess. In chronic 
parotitis there is a thickening of the connective tissue and 
atrophy of the glandular substance which produce a hard, 
fibrous condition (indurative parotitis). 

Symptoms.— The acute infectious parotitis begins with a 
swellmg in one or both glands, ^^ath a collateral edema in the 
surrounding tissues. The swelhng usually develops rapidly, 
is very painfid to the touch and changes the appearance 
of the head and neck. The head is held away from the 
affected side or if bilateral is extended. The temperature 
is elevated (103°-105° F.), the animal shows depression, 
partial or complete loss of appetite, and mastication is slow 
and careful. The saliva is usually increased in quantity and 
runs from the corners of the mouth in strands. In a few 
days abscesses develop, producing a fluctuating enlargement 
which discharges reddish colored pus when opened. In 



PAROTITIS 117 

^ parotitis produced by injuries, lesions are often found on 
the skin. In most cases only one gland is affected and general 
disturbance will not be noted. When resulting from pharyn- 
gitis and stomatitis, the symptoms are modified by the 
swelling of the mucous membrane and connective tissues. 
There is quite an extensive edema of the lips, tongue and in 
the tissue around the gland. Chronic parotitis is charac- 
terized by a firm enlargement of the gland, acute symptoms 
being absent. Steno's duct may be distended from a closure 
of the buccal opening. 

Diagnosis.— Acute parotitis may be confused with enlarge- 
ment of the lymph glands and therefore must be examined 
carefully. The position, shape and nature of the enlarge- 
ment are to be considered in making the diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— Usually favorable. When abscesses develop 
a fistula may result from the opening of some of the ducts. 
In chronic indurative parotitis, the prognosis is less favorable. 

Treatment.— In the early stages w^hen the glands are 
enlarged endeavor to hasten resolution, or abscess formation. 
Later a stimulating liniment (soap or white) may be used 
with good results. When abscesses develop, they should 
be opened early so as to secure good drainage. When the 
incision is made, it should be only through the skin, and the 
tissues then separated with the fingers in order not to injure 
the gland any more than is absolutely necessary. Irrigate 
the cavity daily with antiseptic solutions (boric acid 2 per 
cent., etc.). In cases where the discharge is persistent and 
abundant, tincture of iodin or Lugol's solution injected into 
the gland gives good results (see Salivary Fistula). 

In chronic parotitis recovery may be hastened by the 
application of iodin ointment over the surface of the glands. 
Lugol's solution may be injected directly into the gland. 
Insert the needle rather deep into the gland substance, being 
careful that it does not enter a bloodvessel, which will be 
shown by the free flow of blood. Injections may be made at 
different parts of the gland and repeated in a few days if 
necessary. Small doses of potassium iodid (0.05-0.10) given 
once daily will assist in the absorption of the deposits in the 
gland. 



118 DISEASES OF THE SALIVARY GLAXDS 

SUBMAXILLARY AND SUBLINGUAL GLANDS. 

These glands OT\ing to their position are not as often 
injured as the parotid, therefore inflammation due to trau- 
matism is rare. Occasionally infection develops in the glands 
by gaining entrance through the ducts and producing an 
acute inflammation. 

Symptoms.— Enlargement of the glands, profuse salivation 
with the head held extended. Abscesses often form in the 
glands which open and discharge a reddish colored pus. 
The opening may be through the skin or into the mouth. 

Treatment.— See Parotitis. 



SALIVARY FISTULA. 

Definition.— A fistula which discharges secretions from the 
salivary glands. 

Etiology.— i/^c/mmcaZ.— Injuries (cuts, bites, etc.) in 
which Steno's duct or any of the smaller ducts are opened 
so as to permit the escape of saliva ; often follows operations 
for the removal of a calculus from Steno's duct. 

Infectious.— Abscesses which develop -s^ithin the gland 
may rupture and leave an opening through which the saliva 
escapes. 

Pathology.— ^Vhen the injuries or abscesses open a duct, 
the overhing tissues heal until there is only a small opening 
left through which the saliva continues to be discharged. In 
some cases, however, the healing of the skin is complete and 
then the accumulated secretions burrow along under the 
skin. "When there is enough fluid to cause necrosis of the 
skin by the pressure, it opens and thus forms a fistula. This 
in turn may heal only to reopen in another place. Such 
openings have been found in the lumbar region. 

Symptoms.— A small opening will be noted partially 
covered ^ith matted hair and from which is discharged a 
thin serous fluid (saliva) and occasionally a small amount 
of pus. When probed, it '^ill be found to be only subcu- 
taneous unless in the region of the gland when it ^^ill be 
deeper and lead to the gland or duct. A history of these 



SALIVARY FISTULA 119 

fistulse appearing from time to time may extend over several 
months. In fistula of the duct, the saliva flows freely and 
increases where food is offered or taken. 

Diagnosis.— The chronicity and the character of the dis- 
charge are usually suflScient to make a diagnosis. 

Prognosis . — Unfavorable . 

Treatment.— When the fistula is distant from the gland, 
probe carefully until the origin is reached. Open the skin 
at this point and apply treatment direct to the opening in 
the duct or gland. Tincture of iodin applied direct to the 
opening leads to swelling which occludes the opening. 

In obstinate cases the thermocautery should be used. 
When Steno's duct is open, suturing may be attempted. 
When all treatment fails complete destruction of the gland 
by repeated injections of iodin directly into the gland or 
extirpation should be practised. 



CHAPTER V. 

DISEASES OF THE TONSILS. 

Examination.— The tonsils can be readily examined in 
docile animals by opening the mouth (see examination of 
the mouth) and pulling the tongue well forward. In vicious 
animals, partial or complete anesthesia is advisable. The 
tonsils should be examined for acute or chronic inflamma- 
tions, deposits of mucus on their surface, abscess formation, 
tumors and foreign bodies. The adjacent lymphatic tissues 
are frequently involved producing a diffuse enlargement of 
all the surrounding parts. 

TONSILLITIS AND LYMPHADENITIS. 

Definition.— An acute or chronic inflammation of the tonsils 
and the adjacent lymphatic tissues. 

Etiology.— Tonsillitis is not of very frequent occurrence. 
Some breeds (Boston terrier), however, are occasionally 
affected. 

Exyosure to wet and cold and bad hygienic surroundings 
appear to have a direct influence in producing the disease. 

Chemical. — Carbolic acid, arsenic, etc., may produce it 
by direct irritation. 

Mechanical. — Foreign bodies (sharp pieces of bone, needles 
and pins, etc.) often penetrate the glands and lymph tissue 
resulting in acute inflammation. Inflammation of contigu- 
ous parts will often produce the condition by spread of the 
inflammatory process (stomatitis, pharyngitis, etc.). 

Infectious .—The tonsils and lymphatic tissues undoubtedly 
take up a lot of microorganisms, the most common of which 
are the streptococci and the staphylococci. These organisms 
by their rapid development in the tonsils produce an acute 



TONSILLITIS, AND LYMPHADENITIS 121 

inflammation, and from there, they or their products may 
enter the general circulation and produce symptoms of a 
general infection, or toxemia. Further, this condition may 
appear during the course of some diseases, as distemper, 
rabies, endocarditis, etc. 

Pathology.— The tonsils and the lymphatic tissues become 
swollen, reddened, and later covered with a thick, tenacious 
mucus. Vesicles are frequently formed, and in some instances 
even membranous exudation, forming a pseudomembrane. 
The lacunae of the tonsils become filled with a cheesy mass 
of exudation, often becoming confluent, forming small 
abscesses. The contents of the lacunae are composed of 
epithelial debris and micrococci. In the chronic form, the 
tonsils become h;^^ertrophied due to a multiplication of the 
glands mainly involving the lymphoid; or in some instances 
the fibrous stroma is increased and the tonsils become hard 
and swollen. 

Symptoms. — In the early stages the temperature is 
elevated 102°-104° F., respirations and pulse accelerated. 
When the glands become much enlarged, the patient breathes 
with difficulty, holding the mouth open, producing a peculiar 
snoring sound. Direct examination reveals the reddened 
and enlarged tonsils. The cervical lymph glands are also 
frequently enlarged from the infection. In severe cases the 
tonsils become very much enlarged forming abscesses. 
However, in the majority of cases the inflammation subsides 
within a week, the temperature becomes normal, and the 
local condition rapidly disappears. In the chronic form the 
symptoms are milder and are usually overlooked. 

Prognosis.— In most cases favorable; depends somewhat 
upon the cause. The course is rarely longer than one week 
or ten days for the acute form, while the chronic form may 
continue for several weeks. 

Treatment.— Locally the tonsils and the lymph tissues may 
be treated with a 5 per cent, sodium bicarbonate solution. 
Astringent and styptic preparations (iron, alum, zinc and 
silver nitrate) may be found usefuh Borax in glycerin 
(2 per cent.) or thymol in glycerin (o per cent.) can be used 
as a deodorant when the mouth becomes ofl'ensive. Absct^sses 



122 DISEASES OF THE TONSILS 

should be incised freely to allow drainage and antiseptic 
solutions used. In chronic hypertrophy of the glands and 
lymph tissues, it often becomes necessary to remove the 
enlargement surgically. This can readily be done under 
anesthesia with the aid of a mouth speculum to fix the jaws 
open when with a sharp curette the growths can quickly be 
removed. After-treatment with antiseptic solutions (boric 
acid 2 per cent.) should be continued for a few days. 



CHAPTER VI. 

DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX. 

Examination.— The pharynx is easily exposed to view by 
opening the mouth and pulHng the tongue forward. For a 
more careful examination the mouth speculum may be used 
to immobilize the jaws, while in vicious animals it is always 
best to use an anesthetic. 

PHARYNGITIS. 

Pharyngitis is divided into (a) acute, and (b) chronic. 

Acute Pharyngitis.— Definition.— An acute inflammation 
of the pharynx. 

Etiology.— Mechanical.— ShsiTp foreign bodies (needles, 
pins, sharp pieces of bone, etc.) may penetrate the mucous 
membrane and produce an acute local inflammation. 

Chemical.— Inhalsition of gases (smoke, ammonia, etc.) 
will produce inflammation in the pharynx as well as in the 
larynx. Drugs administered in concentrated form. 

Thermic— Yery hot liquids or foodstuffs when swallowed 
frequently produce in dogs a severe pharyngitis. Exposure 
to cold when the body is heated will produce a congestion 
in the pharyngeal mucous membrane and this may result 
in an acute pharyngitis. 

Infectious.— Msiny of the above causes predispose to infec- 
tion, the most common of which are produced by the strepto- 
coccus and the Bacillus necrophorus. A severe form of 
infectious pharyngitis is occasionally seen in week -old 
puppies and kittens, in some cases amounting almost to an 
enzootic, afl'ecting the entire litter. Pharyngitis is secondary 
to infectious diseases as rabies, distemper, infectious nasal 
catarrh and cholera of birds. It is often produced by an 
extension of inflammation from the adjacent organs and 
tissues (nasal catarrh, bronchitis, stomatitis, etc.). 



124 DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX 

Pathology. — (a) Acute pharyngitis is characterized by 
redness and swelhng of the mucous membrane which has a 
glazed appearance due to the collection of mucus on the 
surface. Later there is an abundant discharge of a thick 
mucus or a mucopurulent exudate. Occasionally it may be 
tinged with blood. In severe cases small erosions appear on 
the posterior part of the pharynx. The lymph follicles are 
enlarged and appear as small, round, elevated, reddish 
nodules projecting through the membrane. 

(b) The discharge contains bacteria, leukocytes, blood 
cells and desquamated and degenerated epithelium. 

Symptoms.— One of the first symptoms is difficulty in 
swallowing food. Frequent attempts at swallowing with the 
head extended are often noticed in the early stages. Later, 
in the more severe cases, abundant salivation results from 
increased secretion and inability to swallow, while retching 
and sometimes vomiting will be seen in some cases from the 
irritation. The head is usually held extended and palpation 
of the pharynx produces pain. The submaxillary and retro- 
pharyngeal lymph glands often become enlarged and may 
produce abscesses. Occasionally in severe cases the salivary 
glands become involved. On examination of the pharynx 
the mucous membrane will be found reddened, congested, 
and covered with mucus or mucopurulent exudate, depending 
upon the stage of the development of the disease, and in 
severe cases swelling and congestion of the adjacent tissues. 
Cough is absent and only occurs when the inflammatory 
process extends to the larynx. In all cases where infection 
develops, the temperature is elevated (103°-105° F.). In 
mild cases when the general symptoms are absent, the appe- 
tite remains good although the animal takes food slowly and 
with care. In severe cases there is a complete loss of appetite. 

Diagnosis.— The symptoms of acute pharyngitis are very 
characteristic: The extended head, difficult swallowing and 
salivation; while direct examination and the temperature 
readily distinguish it from foreign bodies, tumors and par- 
alysis of the pharynx. 

Prognosis.— In older animals it is favorable, recovery 
occurring in one to two weeks. In young animals, when it 
occurs as an enzootic, the mortality is high. 



PHARYNGITIS 125 

Treatment.— Did^^zc— Soft liquid foods (rice soup, milk, 
extract of beef, etc.) should be given in preference to solids 
to avoid irritating the mucous membrane. 

Medical.— IjOCsI treatment in the form of astringent and 
antiseptic solutions (2 per cent, silver nitrate solution; 5 
per cent, alum solution; iodin and glycerin 1-30) applied 
directly to the membrane by using a pledget of cotton held in 
dressing forceps. In milder cases a solution of potassium 
chlorate (2 per cent.) or iron sulphate in the drinking water 
is recommended. A Priesnitz compress applied over the 
pharynx and followed with mild stimulating liniments 
(soap liniment, etc.) is often beneficial. Internally mild 
purgatives such as castor oil or cascara should be used. 

Chronic Pharyngitis.— Definition.— x\ chronic inflammation 
of the mucous membrane of the pharynx. 

Etiology.— This condition may follow repeated acute at- 
tacks, or is frequently associated wdth chronic nasal catarrh. 
It also occurs secondary to inflammation of adjacent tissues. 
Dogs constantly barking from a nervous temperament or 
during shows are often affected from the spread of the 
inflammation from the larynx. 

Pathology.— The mucous membrane is relaxed, the lymph 
tissue becomes proliferated forming small, round elevations, 
red or bluish-red in color which project above the surface 
of the membrane, and is known as pharyngitis granulosa. 
The secretions are lessened producing a dry, glistening con- 
dition of the pharyngeal mucosa. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms are similar in many respects 
to those of acute pharyngitis, but milder in most cases. The 
swelling of the adjacent tissues and lymph glands is hardly 
noticeable. The difficulty in swallowing is especially marked 
when a large quantity of food is taken or when the food is 
very hot or very cold. Direct examination of the pharynx 
reveals the bluish-red color and the elevations over its surface. 

Prognosis. — Considered favorable in most cases, depending 
somewhat on the possibility of removing the causes. In the 
milder cases it is very often overlooked. 

Treatment.— Direct application of Lugol's solution to tl.e 
mucous membrane has been found useful in most cases. 



126 DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX 

Tannic acid and glycerin (1-30) may also be used. Chlorid 
of iron (1-10) in water is of value owing to its astringent and 
antiseptic qualities. The application of the preparations 
should be made daily until the symptoms subside. 

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE PHARYNX. 

Foreign bodies may find lodgment in the mouth or in the 
pharynx. When dogs are ravenously hungry large particles 
of food or food containing foreign bodies are swallowed which 
may lodge in the pharynx, producing choking. The condi- 
tion often terminates fatally in a short time. Cats when fed 
on fish are liable to have fish bones lodge in the pharynx. 
These bones frequently penetrate the mucosa, producing an 
edema of the pharynx and larynx, resulting in death from 
asphyxia. Birds, when eating large seeds (sunflower seeds, 
corn, etc.) often have them lodge in the pharynx, producing 
serious symptoms. Various kinds of foreign bodies have 
been found in the pharynx, the most common being needles, 
pins, bones, hard food masses, meat skewers, cartilage, etc. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms vary somewhat according to 
the size and character of the foreign body. ' Dribbling of 
saliva from the corners of the mouth; frequent attempts at 
swallowing; clamng at the mouth with the forefeet, and 
sometimes retching and vomiting. When the foreign bodies 
are large they often interfere -vvdth the respirations. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is made by direct examination 
of the pharynx (see examination of the pharynx), the sudden 
development and the characteristic symptoms. 

Prognosis.— Depends upon the size and character of the 
foreign body. Where the foreign bodies are small and the 
animal can be treated at once, the prognosis is favorable. In 
other cases where edema occurs or where the foreign body is 
quite large, death may terminate before assistance can be 
given. 

Treatment.— *S2/r^tcaZ.— A mouth speculum is used to keep 
the mouth open and the foreign body often can be easily 
removed with a long curved throat forceps. Holding the 
tongue well forward will materially assist in locating accu- 



CROUPOUS PHARYNGITIS OF BIRDS 127 

lately the foreign body. When the foreign body is in the form 
of a threaded needle, which frequently occurs in cats, the 
sharp point is usually toward the mouth. Therefore care 
should be used in removing it' to prevent laceration of the 
tissues. By grasping it with the forceps and pushing it down- 
ward until the sharp point is free from the tissues, it can then 
be readily removed. Large food masses often can be broken 
between the fingers and extracted or pushed down into the 
esophagus. Where edema of the tissues results from lacera- 
tion and symptoms of suffocation develop, tracheotomy 
should be performed at once. (See Tracheotomy.) No 
after-treatment is necessary except when severe injury to 
the tissues has taken place; in these conditions the pharynx 
should be treated direct with antiseptic solutions (boric acid 
2 per cent.), using a dressing forceps with a pledget of cotton 
firmly attached. In birds the mouth is held open and a 
small pincette used to dislodge the foreign body. 

PARALYSIS OF THE PHARYNX. 

Pharyngeal paralysis occurs mostly during the course of 
specific diseases (rabies, distemper) and will therefore be 
described under those diseases which it accompanies. 

CROUPOUS PHARYNGITIS OF BIRDS. 

Definition.— A croupous inflammation affecting the pharyn- 
geal mucous membrane of birds. 

Etiology.— This condition is produced by a flagellated 
infusoria, the Monocercomonas gallinte. This parasite is 
round or discoid in shape, of a pale color and from 14 to 25 
mm. in length and 5 to 7 mmm. in breadth. The disease 
affects young birds, especially pigeons. Unsanitary condi- 
tions and cold, damp quarters are predisposing factors. 

Pathology.— Small white elevations are found on the 
mucous membrane of the pharynx, often extending into the 
esophagus and crop. Occasionally these lesions are noted 
at the base of the tongue and on the palate. Surrounding 
these small elevations are found zones of acute inflammations 
with considerable swelling and congestion of the membrane. 



128 DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX 

Symptoms.— Loss of appetite, dulness and general weakness 
are the first symptoms observed. The phimage becomes 
rough, the wings are pendant and the mouth held open. 
The odor from the mouth is offensive. Examination of the 
posterior part of the mouth and the pharynx reveals the 
presence of the small white elevations. A microscopic exami- 
nation of scrapings made from these white spots will confirm 
the diagnosis by finding the infusoria. 

Prognosis.— It should be considered unfavorable especially 
in very young birds. Death occurs in many cases from loss 
of appetite and exhaustion. 

Treatment.— Where only a few cases are observed, they 
should be separated at once from the healthy birds and the 
runways and roosts thoroughly disinfected ^dth lime, or 
carbolic acid (5 per cent.). The mouth and pharynx should 
be cleansed ^dth a solution of boric acid (2 per cent.) or 
creolin to destroy the infusoria. Remove the small elevations 
with a blunt curette and apply to the surface chlorid of iron 
(1-10) in water or a solution of tannic acid (5 per cent.) in 
water, to arrest the hemorrhage and to produce antiseptic 
action. 

NEOPLASMS OF THE PHARYNX. 

Polypoid Growths.— Polypoid growths (myxomas) are 
found occasionally projecting from the pharyngeal mucous 
membrane. They vary greatly in size from half an inch to 
four inches in length. From severe or sudden exertion or 
swallowing they are often forced into the esophageal opening, 
interfering ^^dth the prehension of food and drink. 

Symptoms.— Sudden interference \\ith deglutition; symp- 
toms of suffocation; often rapid recovery; periodic recurrence 
of the symptoms and direct examination of the pharynx will 
reveal the presence of the pohq)oid growths. 

Treatment. — *S2/r^ica/.— The mouth speculum should be 
used, the tongue pulled well forward and a small mre ecraseur 
used to remove the enlargement. It should be removed as 
close to the base as possible. No after-treatment is necessary. 
Recovery takes place promptly. 



NEOPLASMS OF THE PHARYNX 129 

Epithelioma.— These are found occasionally in old animals, 
and occur in the pharynx as a primary condition or may be due 
to metastasis. The retropharyngeal and submaxillary hTiiph 
glands are nearly always involved. This condition has been 
seen secondary to malignant goiter, having extended to the 
lymph glands by metastasis and from there to the pharynx. 

Symptoms.— Difficulty in swallowing; fetid odor from the 
mouth; often profuse salivation. Direct examination shows 
the presence of an ulcerated enlargement on the pharyngeal 
mucosa. The general condition is in most cases disturbed. 
Emaciation, especially when due to metastasis; loss of appe- 
tite. A small portion of the enlargement should be obtained 
and examined microscopically to confirm the diagnosis. 

Treatment.— No satisfactory treatment can be given. 



CHAPTER Vll. 

DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS. 

Examination.— The cervical portion of the esophagus is 
readily examined by palpation over its course along the 
upper surface of the trachea. The probang affords a means 
of examining the interior for foreign bodies, strictures, etc., 
along its entire length. 

ESOPHAGITIS. 

Definition.— An acute inflammation of the mucous mem- 
brane of the esophagus. 

Etiology. — (a) Mechanical. — Irritation from foreign bodies 
(bones, needles, splinters of wood, etc.), passing of sounds, 
etc., lacerating the mucous membrane. External injuries to 
walls. 

(6) Thermic. — Eating verj^ hot foodstuffs or drinking hot 
liquids. 

(c) Chemical.— Alkalies and acids, ammonia and corrosive 
medicinal agents frequently in their passage through the 
esophagus produce an acute inflammation. 

(d) Infections. — Occurs during the course of infectious 
diseases (rabies, distemper). 

Secondarily it is produced by the spread of the inflamma- 
tion from the pharynx or stomach. It occurs sometimes 
spontaneously in very young suckling animals. 

Pathology.— Redness of the mucosa is rarely seen except 
after injuries or severe chemical irritants. The epithelium 
is thickened, desquamated and the surface covered with a 
fine granular substance. The mucous follicles are swollen 
and sometimes erosions may be seen. In phlegmonous 
inflammation, the mucous membrane is swollen, with a 



FOREIGN BODIES— OBSTRUCTION IN ESOPHAGUS 131 

purulent infiltration in the submucosa. This condition is 
usually seen around foreign bodies when the}' penetrate the 
membranes, and, as a rule, remains localized. Gangrene of 
the membrane is sometimes seen where the injury or infec- 
tion has been severe. 

Symptoms.— In the milder forms of esophagitis the symp- 
toms are unobserved. In more severe forms there is great 
difficulty in swallowing which act is often soon followed by 
vomiting. The vomitus contains blood, the solid particles 
covered or streaked with it. Frequent attempts at swallow- 
ing, constantly extending the head or moving it from side 
to side. In some cases where corrosives have been swallowed 
fragments of the mucous membrane will be ejected with the 
vomitus. Profuse salivation, blood is often mixed with the 
saliva. Palpation along the cervical portion of the esophagus 
produces severe pain. When localized in the cervical por- 
tion the esophagus should be palpated carefully for foreign 
bodies. 

Course and Prognosis.— In the majority of cases, recovery 
takes place in one to two weeks. In very severe inflammation 
complications are liable to occur. Strictures or abscess with 
perforation of the walls of the esophagus may result. In the 
latter when the thoracic portion is involved the termination 
is fatal from infectious pleuritis. 

Treatment.— In the early stages cold milk, or tannic acid 
(1-2 per cent.) in cold water is indicated to allay the inflam- 
mation and to produce astringent action. Cold compresses 
to the cervical portion of the esophagus often have a beneficial 
action. Inflammations from caustic substances should be 
treated as early as possible with the proper antidote. When 
severe pain is shown small doses of morphin should be admin- 
istered subcutaneously. Tincture of opium in dilute solution 
may be given i^er orem. . In very severe cases where foods 
cannot be given via the mouth, enemata should be em])l{)yed. 

FOREIGN BODIES. OBSTRUCTION IN ESOPHAGUS. 

Etiology.— Obstruction in the esophagus occurs uu)st fre- 
quently in dogs. The body lodges immediately posterior to 



132 DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS 

the pharynx; at the lower extremity of the cervical portion 
at its entrance to the thorax; or near the cardiac orifice (at 
this point the lumen of the esophagus is less than at any 
other place along its course). Owing to the habit of these 
animals of taking food in large pieces and T\dthout mastica- 
tion the majority of the obstructions occur just posterior to 
the pharynx. However, sharp bodies may be found anywhere 
along its course. In the dog a great variety of substances 
have been found producing the obstruction, as these animals 
during eating or at play swallow many substances that would 
not be found in other animals. The most common substances 
which are liable to produce the obstruction in dogs are: 
Bones, cartilage, hard food masses, pieces of tendon, needles, 
rubber balls, meat skewers, stones, etc. In cats fish bones 
are frequently found which they get from eating scraps of 
fish given them mthout remo"vdng the bones. As a rule fish 
bones lodge in the anterior portion of the esophagus just 
behind the pharynx. Young kittens while playing occa- 
sionally attempt to swallow threaded needles, or pins which 
lodge at some point along the esophageal wall. Large bodies 
when indefinitely retained often produce a pressure necrosis 
with perforation of the walls. 

Symptoms.— The early symptoms are those of refusing 
food, pain during swalloT\dng, paroxysms of choking with 
retching and in some cases vomiting, salivation, and scratch- 
ing at the mouth and neck. The head is held extended, the 
respirations become labored, and the patient evinces severe 
pain. In cats the mouth is held open, there is profuse saliva- 
tion, and when the foreign body has penetrated the walls 
severe nervous symptoms are produced. The foreign body 
when located in the cervical portion of the esophagus will at 
once be recognized by the painful swelling w^hich appears 
along its course, especially in the case of large objects. There 
is frequently edema of the surrounding tissues which may 
extend for some distance from the point of injury. Palpation 
usually reveals the size and character of the obstruction. 
Often when the objects are located just posterior to the 
pharynx by opening the mouth and pulling the tongue well 
forward they can be seen or felt ^dth the finger. In cats, 



FOREIGN BODIES— OBSTRUCTION IN ESOPHAGUS 133 

needles and fish bones are often seen by this method. In cases 
of small obstructions located in the thoracic portion of the 
esophagus, the symptoms are not so pronounced. Loss of 
appetite, emaciation and occasional vomiting are the most 
prominent manifestations of the condition. However, when 
sharp objects penetrate the walls at this point, various com- 
plications of a serious nature may be produced. The passage 
of a sound (horse catheter) is often a valuable aid in arriving 
at a correct diagnosis. In valuable animals, Roentgen rays 
may be used to assist in locating hard or metallic substances. 

Diagnosis.— This is made positive by a careful examination 
together with the above mentioned symptoms. Care should 
be taken to exclude rabies as the symptoms are similar. (See 
Rabies.) Always beware of the dog with "bone in the 
throat." 

Prognosis.— Foreign bodies located in the cervical portion 
of the esophagus can usually be removed which is followed 
by rapid recovery except in those cases where necrosis is 
produced from pressure upon the walls, or extensive phleg- 
monous inflammation from perforation. It sometimes 
happens that needles and pins will penetrate the w^alls and 
become encapsuled in the adjacent tissues without producing 
any further disturbance to the animal. Foreign bodies 
located in the thoracic portion of the esophagus should always 
be considered unfavorable owing to their location and the 
danger of injury to the organs in the thoracic cavity or a 
purulent pleuritis resulting from perforation. 

Treatment.— Obstructions to the esophagus are removed 
by: (a) Use of throat forceps; (6) by propulsion with the 
sound into stomach; (c) by emesis; {d) by esophagotomy; 
(e) by gastrotomy and sound forcing the foreign body out 
via mouth. 

(a) The throat forceps can often be used to an advantage 
when the object is located in the posterior part of the 
pharynx or in the anterior part of the esophagus. The mouth 
is held open with the speculum, the tongue pulled well for- 
ward, and the object grasped with the forceps and removed. 
Care should be taken to prevent laceration of the tissues in 
case of a sharp object or one of an irregular shape. 



134 DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS 

{b) The sound is to be used in those cases where the 
obstruction is located farther down the tube and cannot be 
reached with the throat forceps. Various kinds of instru- 
ments have been devised for this purpose. The horse catheter 
will answer in a large number of cases. It is introduced by 
using the mouth speculum, depressing the tongue. Having 
oiled the instrument, it is passed, holding it firmly against 
the roof of the mouth and following the posterior wall of the 
pharynx, into the esophagus. When the instrument reaches 
the pharynx the animal will invariably swallow, which 
greatly assists in its introduction into the esophagus. The 
sound is then brought in contact with the object which is 
carefully pushed into the stomach. When there is much 
resistance and the object is firmly fixed, the catheter should 
be removed and other methods used to dislodge it. The 
bristle probang is often used to advantage in extracting 
foreign bodies which do not entirely close the lumen of the 
esophagus. It is introduced closed so that it may pass the 
object, and then opened so that the bristles will completely 
fill the lumen when it is withdrawn bringing the foreign body 
out in front of it. 

(c) The act of vomiting, which is easily induced, will often 
displace the foreign body. This is best brought about by 
the use of apomorphin (dogs 0.0016-0.006; cats 0.001-0.003). 
The administration of castor or linseed oil to lubricate the 
mucous membrane will often assist in removing the obstruc- 
tion. 

(d) Esophagotomy is performed in the following man- 
ner: Secure the animal in the dorsal position with the 
head extended. Clip and shave the hair over the field 
of operation and cleanse thoroughly with antiseptic solu- 
tions (bichlorid of mercury 1-2000; boric acid 2 per cent., 
etc.). Under general anesthesia, using morphin (0.016-0.21), 
ether, etc., make a skin incision over the obstructing body 
and between the muscles, being careful to avoid the large 
vessels of the neck. When the esophagus is exposed make 
a longitudinal incision through it of sufficient length to allow 
the foreign body to be removed. Care should be used to pre- 
vent laceration of the mucous membrane. When the incision 



STRICTURE OF THE ESOPHAGUS 135 

is very long, one or more interrupted sutures should be made 
in the esophagus and the wound packed with gauze saturated 
in a boric acid solution (2 per cent.), retained with sutures 
through the skin. Allow this to remain in position for 
twenty-four to fOrty-eight hours, then remove pack, the 
sutures in the esophageal wall and treat as an open w^ound, 
cleansing it daily with boric acid solution (2 per cent.) until 
healing is complete. Withhold all food and drink for twenty- 
four hours and then give only liquid foods for a few days. 
Rectal feeding of milk, eggs, etc., may be used when the 
swelling of the mucous membrane is sufficient to obstruct 
the esophagus. 

(e) As a last resort when the firmly fixed object is located 
in the thoracic portion of the esophagus and cannot be 
removed by the methods mentioned, gastrotomy should be 
performed (see Diseases of Stomach), and the catheter 
introduced to propel the foreign body out via the mouth. 
Should the object be located in the cardiac portion of the 
esophagus, a small dressing forceps is often useful to grasp it 
and remove it via stomach incision. 

ESOPHAGISMUS. 

Definition.— A spasmodic contraction of the esophagus. 

Etiology.— This condition occurs occasionally during the 
course of some diseases. It has been observed in chorea, 
epilepsy and in the early stages of rabies. Sometimes foreign 
bodies, by irritating the membranes, produce a spasmodic 
contraction of the walls of the esophagus. 

Symptoms.— Very similar to foreign bodies in the esophagus; 
often foreign bodies are also present. 

Prognosis.— In most cases favorable. 

Treatment.— The passage of the sound is usually sufficient 
to overcome the condition except in the case of foreign bodies 
being present. (See Foreign Bodies in the P^sophagus.) 

STRICTURE OF THE ESOPHAGUS. 

Definition.— A constriction of the esophagus due in most 
cases to cicatricial contraction of the walls reducing the size 
of the lumen. 



13G DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS 

Etiology.— The most common causes of this condition are 
the following: (a) Cicatricial contraction of healed ulcers, 
usually due to corrosive poisons; injuries by foreign bodies, 
etc. ; esophagotomy . (h) External pressure by enlarged lymph 
glands, enlarged thyroids, other tumors and occasionally 
pericardial effusion, (c) The growth of tumors in the walls 
of the esophagus (metastatic sarcomas and carcinomas). 
The stricture may occur in any part of the esophagus, and 
in severe cases may involve the entire tube, but usually it is 
found either near the pharynx or the stomach. 

Symptoms.— Difficulty in swallo\\dng and only small 
quantities taken. Severe pain immediately after eating. 
Retching and vomiting are often noticed. Gradual emacia- 
tion due to the interference with deglutition. Examination 
of the esophagus in the cer\dcal region by palpation or the 
passage of the sound to the thoracic region will usually reveal 
the constricted condition of the esophagus. 

Prognosis.— Should be considered unfavorable in all cases 
of long standing. Recent cases, depending upon the cause, 
may recover sufficiently not to interfere much with the 
animal's general condition. 

Treatment.— By surgical means the cause of the condition 
should be removed if possible. The passage of the sound, 
well lubricated, daily for a time will in some cases overcome 
the constriction. In severe constrictions where a large por- 
tion of the walls is involved no treatment can be applied that 
will be of any ser^dce. 

DILATATIONS AND DIVERTICULA OF THE ESOPHAGUS. 

Definition.— Dilatation is a diseased condition whereby 
the lumen of the esophagus is enlarged (ectasia oesophagi). 
A diverticulum is a saccular distention of the esophageal wall 
at a given point along its course (diverticulum oesophagi). 

Etiology.— Dilatation may develop secondary to stenosis of 
the esophagus, from pressure of food masses retained above 
the stenosis resulting in paralysis or atony of the muscular 
wall; from foreign bodies remaining in the esophagus for 
sufficient length of time to produce paralysis; injuries; 



CATARRH OF THE CROP IN BIRDS^SOFT CROP 137 

esophagotomy. Diverticula may result from overdistention 
of the esophagus with rupture of the muscles allowing the 
mucous membrane to protrude; also due to cicatricial con- 
tractions following inflammatory adhesions to lymph glands. 

Symptoms.— An enlargement will be noticed along the 
region of the esophagus if it be in the cervical portion. Diffi- 
culty in swallowing; saliva increased; regurgitation of small 
amounts of undigested and decomposed food covered with 
mucus; fetid odor from the mouth; the probang may pass 
without difficulty although it may be obstructed by the 
stenosis or stricture at the distal end. The symptoms of a 
diverticulum are very obscure except when large and in the 
cervical portion of the esophagus. The retention of food 
gives rise to retching and vomiting, or from the ensuing 
ulceration may result in the formation of a fistula. 

Diagnosis.— Careful observation of the symptoms; the 
absence of gastric secretions in the vomitus; palpation 
reducing the enlargement which will become refilled after 
feeding. The use of the probang may assist in the diagnosis 
by determining the presence of the stenosis or spasm . 

Prognosis.— Diffuse dilatation, or a diverticulum of the 
thoracic portion of the esophagus, should be considered 
incurable. The prognosis depends upon the completeness 
with which nutrition can be carried on. It is always unfavor- 
able as there is a tendency to ulceration and perforation of the 
walls with formation of a fistula. 

Treatment.— No satisfactory treatment can be given except 
in diverticulum in the cervical portion of the esophagus 
which may be operated (see Esophagotomy) and the diver- 
ticulum reduced by suturing. 

CATARRH OF THE CROP IN BIRDS. SOFT CROP. 

Definition.— A catarrhal inflammation of the mucous mem- 
brane of the crop. 

Etiology.— Irregular feeding is a common causative factor. 
Birds fed irregularly are quite liable to overload the crop, 
resulting in distention and partial paralysis of the muscular 
walls. This condition interferes with the secretion of tlie 



138 DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS 

glands resulting in fermentation or decomposition of the crop 
contents which irritate the mucous membrane . often pro- 
ducing a severe catarrhal inflammation. Eating indigestible 
or decomposed substances (feathers, putrid meat, etc.) often 
produces catarrh of the crop. 

Poisons (arsenic, phosphorous, salt, etc.), when taken acci- 
dentally or given intentionally, often produce a very severe 
form of the disease. The presence of parasites (Dispharagus 
nasutus, etc.) in the crop ^^411 in most cases produce a catarrhal 
inflammation, the severity of which depends upon the num- 
ber present. In pigeons fermentation of an overabundant 
secretion after the loss of the young ^^ill produce a serious 
catarrhal inflammation of the crop and other parts of the 
digestive tract. Crop catarrh also occurs during the course 
of some diseases (diphtheria, thrush, cholera). 

Symptoms.— Distention of the crop is at first the most 
noticeable symptom. On palpation the crop will be found 
to be soft and fluctuating, due to an accumulation of liquid, 
gaseous and solid food material. Loss of appetite, eructations 
of gases, sometimes retching and vomiting are symptoms. 
By pressure upon the crop the contents will be expelled i^ia 
mouth, emitting a very offensive odor. The birds may die 
from exhaustion. 

Diagnosis.— This is determined quite accurately by a care- 
ful examination of the crop and the character and condition 
of the contents. 

Prognosis.— When not a symptom or complication of 
some other disease (cholera, thrush, etc.), the prognosis is 
usually considered favorable and the majority respond readily 
to treatment. When a large number of a flock is aftected, 
indicating a severe catarrhal inflammation, the prognosis is 
less favorable owing to the difficulty in applying prompt 
remedial measures. Repeated return of the condition often 
produces the so-called hanging crop or dilation. 

TieaLtment.— Hygienic— The birds should be provided Tsith 
a clean, dry place free from extremes in temperature. 

Dietetic— In mild cases where the appetite is not entirely 
lost, solid food should be withheld for a day or so, only a 
small quantity of liquids being allowed. 



OBSTRUCTION OF CROP IN BIRDS—HARD CROP 139 

Medical.— Before administering medicinal agents it is 
necessary to thoroughly empt}' the crop which is done in the 
following manner: The bird is held with its head pendant, 
and the crop carefully manipulated and compressed between 
the thumb and fingers, when the contents will flow out via 
mouth. The crop should be thoroughly compressed from 
behind toward the mouth until it is completely emptied. 
Ten to 30 c.c. of a bicarbonate of soda solution (2 per cent.) 
is then administered to neutralize the acidity of the retained 
contents and to dissolve the accumulated mucus from the 
membrane. For a few days small doses of sodium bicar- 
bonate (0.15) or bismuth subnitrate (0.10) may be admin- 
istered daily. Only small quantities of food should be 
allowed for at least four to five days. 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE CROP IN BIRDS. HARD CROP. 

Definition.— An impaction of the crop. 

Etiology.— The obstruction of the crop is often seen from 
overfeeding, especially with dry foods (oats, rye, corn, peas, 
etc.) or with quantities of straw, leaves, grasses, and other 
indigestible substances swallowed by the bird. In water 
birds it occurs from eating large quantities of certain grasses 
(triticum repens, etc.). Turkeys are most commonly affected 
by eating large quantities of insects (grasshoppers, etc.), 
straw, grains and grasses. Further, swallowing various kinds 
of foreign bodies with the food (metallic substances, large 
stones, pieces of glass, bones, egg shells, or large numbers of 
very small stones, etc.) often produces impaction of the crop. 

In some mild cases of catarrh with irritation of the mucous 
membrane the birds often eat large quantities of indigestible 
substances leading to an impaction. Animal parasites when 
in large numbers will produce the same result. 

Symptoms.— The birds are dull, stupid, show rough plu- 
mage, pale comb and wattles, with a constant opening and 
closing of the beak; or the beak is held open to facilitate 
breathing which is often interfered with by pressure of the 
enlarged crop upon the trachea. A disagreeable odor ema- 
nates from the mouth, and often quantities of fermented or 



140 DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS 

decomposed liquids and food particles escape from the 
mouth and nostrils. The appetite in the early stages is 
lessened and later entirely lost. The crop when examined 
will be found greatly distended, hard and more or less firm 
on palpation. In some cases it is very hard, producing the 
so-called " hard crop." When metallic substances are present, 
it is possible in some cases to palpate them, or in case of 
sharp objects they are sometimes found projecting through 
the muscular walls and skin. With the aid of the Roentgen 
rays the character and size of the foreign body can often be 
revealed. 

Prognosis.— This depends upon the character of the 
impacted material, its duration and the condition of the bird. 
In most cases if allowed to continue it ^xi\\ result fatahy. In 
some cases, the crop becomes enormously distended, pro- 
ducing the so-called "hanging crop." 

Treatment.— The early indication in the treatment is to 
massage the crop and try to remove the contents via mouth. 
This is best done by suspending the bird head downward, 
and massaging and kneading the crop carefully which crushes 
the crop contents so that they may be gently forced into the 
mouth. Often the entire contents can be removed in this 
manner. The administration of a small quantity of linseed 
oil to lubricate the esophagus mil often assist when appl^dng 
the above method. 

Where this method T\'ill not suffice, it mil be necessary 
to open the crop and remove the contents through the 
incision. The feathers should be pulled out over a space 
about If inches vride and 2-3 inches long at the point of 
greatest protrusion. The field of operation should be 
thoroughly disinfected. The incision can be enlarged suffi- 
ciently to admit of the crop contents being easily removed. 
A blunt Curette or pincette is useful in assisting removal. 
The crop should be thoroughly irrigated mth a sodium 
bicarbonate solution (2 per cent.), and the edges of the 
wound disinfected with a boric acid solution (2 per cent.). 
The wound is then stitched mth a single row of interrupted 
sutures sufficiently close together to prevent the escape of 
any contents. The stitches should not be removed for at 



NEOPLASMS OF THE ESOPHAGUS 141 

least eight to ten days. All food and liquids should be with- 
held for twenty-four hours and for the next four or ^ve days 
only a small quantity of liquid food given. 

NEOPLASMS OF THE ESOPHAGUS. 

Tumors of the esophagus are very rare and those occurring 
most commonly are: Epithelioma, sarcoma and carcinoma. 
These occur most frequently ma metastasis. Retention 
cysts are found at the anterior part of the esophagus. 

Symptoms.— Tumors produce a narrowing of the esophagus 
similar to stenosis (see Stenosis). When this occurs in the 
cervical portion the condition may be determined by palpa- 
tion. A differentiation from foreign bodies, diverticula and 
dilatation is often made possible by careful palpation. 

Diagnosis.— The kind of tumor can only be determined 
by obtaining some of the enlargement for microscopical 
examination. 

Prognosis.— When malignant tumors (carcinoma, sarcoma, 
epithelioma) are present, the prognosis is very unfavorable; 
retention cysts unless they interfere with nutrition are more 
favorable. Small ones may be present without being noticed 
for a long time. 

Treatment.— No treatment should be attempted for 
malignant tumors. Retention cysts may be reduced by 
pressure from the outside or esophagotomy (see Esophagot- 
omy) may be performed and the c^^st wall destroyed. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 

Examination.— The stomach can be examined as follows: 
1. By the character, condition and quantity of the contents, 
which may be obtained: (a) By the use of an emetic (apo- 
morphin 0.0016.-0.003 etc.), (b) by natural vomiting, (c) by 
the use of a stomach tube or (d) through gastrotomy (see 
Foreign Bodies in the Stomach). 

2. Palpation over the region of the stomach T\ill cause 
pain in acute inflammatory conditions, although this may 
be confused with painful conditions of the liver, peritonitis 
and enteritis. 

3. By performing laparotomy and making a direct exami- 
nation of the stomach. The mucous membrane may also 
be examined directly by performing gastrotomy. 

GASTRITIS. 

Gastritis is an inflammation of the stomach. The following 
forms are recognized: (a) Acute, and (b) chronic. 

Acute Gastritis. — 5i7??p/e Catarrh of the Stomach. Acute 
Dyspepsia.— Definition.— An acute catarrhal inflammation 
of the mucous membrane of the stomach which may involve 
the entire wall. 

Etiology.— Acute catarrhal gastritis is usually due to errors 
in diet. The ingestion of more food than can be digested, 
irregular feeding, or eating unsuitable food, which is partially 
decomposed containing ptomaines (cadavers, garbage, etc.), 
and hard pieces of bone, cartilage and tendon are very com- 
mon causes of. this condition. Injuries to the epigastrium 
(kicks, blows, and being run over by vehicles, etc.). 

.Chemical.— Xanous chemical substances (phenol, arsenic, 
mercury, phosphorus, etc.) when taken accidentally or 



GASTRITIS 143 

given intentionally will produce a very serious form of gas- 
tritis (toxic). An excess of sodium chlorid given in the food 
to birds will often produce a severe gastritis. 

Thermic— \evy hot, solid foods and liquids, or very cold, 
frozen foods will sometimes produce a gastritis. Rabbits 
eating frozen vegetables are thus often affected. 

Injections .—IniectioM^ gastritis occurs during the course 
of most infectious diseases (distemper, rabies, etc.). 

Parasites.— See Parasites of the Stomach. 

Pathology.— x\cute catarrhal gastritis is characterized by a 
swelling and hyperemia of the mucous membrane which is 
often corrugated, and intensely red with small ecchymoses 
appearing over the surface. Small superficial erosions are 
occasionally noticed. 

Symptoms.— Vomiting occurs early and is the most promi- 
nent symptom often being quite frequent and in severe cases 
very persistent. The vomitus in the beginning consists of 
quantities of undigested and decomposed food material 
covered with mucus and sometimes streaked with blood, with 
a very disagreeable odor. When due to chemical causes it 
often has the characteristic odor of the poison. Later the 
vomitus consists almost entirely of small amounts of frothy 
mucus, and when the vomiting is severe there is often an 
admixture of bile. The appetite in severe cases is completely 
lost and in mild cases it is variable and vitiated, the animal 
eating unnatural material. Bowel complications (see 
Enteritis) invariably follow severe cases of gastritis. 

On examination the animals show pain on palpation over 
the region of the stomach, which manipulation often induces 
vomiting. There is a grayish-white deposit over the dorsal 
surface of the tongue (furred tongue) ; the temperature is 
elevated in the early stages of severe cases (103°-105° F.), 
later the temperature is subnormal (97°-10()° F.). Tn milder 
cases the temperature shows but httle variation. 

The general symptoms in the early stages of severe gas- 
tritis are those of uneasiness and intense ])ain (howling, 
etc.), stiffness and consideral)le i)ain wliich is shown when the 
patient is moved about. In milder cases the only symptoms 
noticeable are occasional vomiting and variable appetite. 



144 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

Diagnosis.— Acute non-infectious gastritis is not very 
difficult to diagnose as the symptoms are very characteristic 
and quite often the anamnesis is of vahie. The primary 
infectious form, however, may be confused with that due to 
specific infectious diseases (distemper, etc.), but this can be 
distinguished by the general symptoms, especially the tem- 
perature which in the latter cases rises more abruptly and 
shows less variation than in the former. 

Prognosis.— In primary acute gastritis, due to errors in 
feeding, the prognosis is usually favorable. 

When due to poisons, foreign bodies, and injuries, it 
depends largely upon the extent of injury to the stomach 
and the possibility of removing the cause. In infectious 
gastritis, when not due to specific infection, the prognosis is 
usually favorable, but if accompanying a specific disease it 
depends on the primary disease. 

Ire&tmejit.— Dietetic— In strong animals all food should 
be mthheld twenty-four to forty-eight hours and then only 
a small amount of easily digested food given at frequent 
intervals until recovery takes place. In weak individuals 
easily or predigested food may be allowed unless it induces 
persistent vomiting when nourishment should be given via 
the rectum. 

Medical.— ^lild cases usually recover promptly following 
the use of a purgative (ol. ricini, dogs 15.0 to 60.0, cats 5.0 
to 20.0; calomel, dogs 0.3-0.4, cats 0.01-0.005; cascara fid. 
ext. dogs, 5.0-10.0, cats 1.0-5.0). 

In severe cases unless vomiting has occurred an emetic, 
such as apomorphin hydrochlorate (dogs 0.005-0.01, cats 
0.002-0.005) given subcutaneously is indicated to expel 
irritating material and foreign bodies which may be present. 
Following vomiting, irrigation of the stomach mth a sodium 
bicarbonate solution (2 per cent.) is advisable to remove irri- 
tating- material from the surface of the mucous membrane. 
This can be accomplished by the use of a rubber tube or 
horse catheter inserted into the stomach. The warm sodium 
bicarbonate solution (500.0-1000.0) may be introduced into 
the stomach by elevating the free end of the tube and using 
a funnel. Allow the tube to remain in the stomach for a few 



GASTRITIS 145 

minutes, then depress it to allow the fluid to flow out again. 
Repeat this two or three times. To stimulate the functions 
of the stomach, stomachic tonics are indicated: 

For Dog. 

. I^ — Ferri et quinnse citratis 4.0 

■ Pepsini 1.0 

Sacchari albse 2.0 

Misce et fiat pulv. No. XX. 

Sig. — Give a powder every twelve hours. 

For Cats. 
One-half the above dose. 

or 

For Dog. 

^ — Tinctura? nucis vomicae 7.0 

Tincturge gentianse 10.0 

Aqua communis 60.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful twice daily. 

For Cats. 

I^ — Tincturse nucis vomicae 1.0 

Syrupi auranti 60.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful once daily. 

or 

I^ — Acidi hydrochlorici 2.5 

Tincturae gentianae comp 10.0 

Aqua . 150.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful three times a day. 

Vomiting is often present in these cases but it is usually 
stopped by the removal of the irritating material through 
irrigation of the stomach (lavage), but if it persists it may 
be controlled by using sedatives. 

For Dog. 

J\ — Bismuthi sul)ni1r;Uis 0.5 

Opii pulvcrati 0.2 

Sacchari alhae '0 

Misce et fiat pulv. No. VI. 

Sig. — Give one powder every four to six hours until vomiting is reduced. 

10 



146 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

When due to chemicals the proper antidote should be 
administered (see Poisons). 

Surgical.— yVhen foreign bodies are present and cannot be 
expelled by emesis or purgation, gastrotomy must be per- 
formed (see Foreign Bodies of the Stomach) . 

Chronic Gastritis. — Chronic Catarrh of the Stomach. 
Chro7iic Dyspepsia.— Defixiitioii.— A chronic catarrh of the 
stomach with a disturbance in digestion, increased mucus 
formation, changes in the gastric secretions, partial paralysis 
of the muscular walls and alterations in the structure of the 
mucosa. 

Etiology.— Chronic gastritis is a rather common condition 
especially in the dog. It results very frequently from several 
repeated attacks of acute gastritis and is therefore produced 
by causes similar to those found under acute gastritis (see 
Etiology of Acute Gastritis) . It often occurs as a secondary 
complication to various diseases, such as ulceration of the 
stomach, gastric tumors, diseases of the liver, chronic con- 
stitutional diseases (anemia, chlorosis, chronic nephritis, 
etc.). Parasites, by constant irritation to the membranes 
for a long period, will produce chronic gastritis (see Parasites) . 

Pathology.— The stomach is usually enlarged, the mucous 
membrane pale, becomes gray in color and its surface covered 
with a thick, tenacious mucus. The veins are found distended 
and small hemorrhagic erosions and ecchymoses are seen 
distributed over the mucous membrane. In the later stages 
the mucous membrane becomes greatly thickened, especially 
toward the pyloris, and the mucous glands large and indur- 
ated from the constant irritation. Microscopically there is 
every evidence of a parenchymatous and an interstitial 
inflammation. 

Symptoms.— This affection persists for an indefinite period 
and like most chronic conditions changes from time to time. 
In the dog, the animal most commonly affected, the appetite 
is variable, sometimes greatly impaired and at other times 
very good. Vomiting and retching are frequent symptoms 
and are especially noticeable a short time after eating. The 
vomited material consists of undigested food particles covered 
with a thick, tenacious mucus and has a very sour, disagree- 



GASTRITIS 147 

able odor. After severe and prolonged paroxysms of vomit- 
ing, the mucus is frequently mixed with blood from the rup- 
turing of small bloodvessels at the seat of the erosions. The 
chemical analysis of the vomited material shows the presence 
of abnormal acids, such as butyric or sometimes acetic in 
addition to lactic acid, while the hydrochloric acid is either 
absent or greatly reduced in quantity. Digestion, therefore, 
is delayed and decomposition and gas formation favored 
which in some cases greatly distends the stomach. Con- 
stipation is usually present, but in some cases there is diar- 
rhea and the undigested food passes rapidly through the 
bowels. The urine is often reduced in quantity, has a high 
color and a very disagreeable odor. There are general 
symptoms of disturbed nutrition, resulting in emaciation and 
general weakness. 

Diagnosis.— A diagnosis of chronic gastritis is not always 
easy as the symptoms present are also indicative of other 
conditions. However, by a careful analysis of the symptoms 
and considering the condition of the animal and a careful 
examination of the contents of the stomach, the diagnosis 
may be made with a certain degree of accuracy. 

Prognosis.— A complete recovery in this condition is prac- 
tically impossible. However, a great number of cases will 
improve with careful diet and treatment. As a rule an 
unfavorable prognosis should be made owing to the patho- 
logical changes which have taken place in the mucosa and 
muscular walls of the stomach. 

Treatment.— Die^dic— The dietetic treatment is of greater 
importance in the majority of cases than the use of medicines. 
A careful regulation of the diet is always to be insisted upon . 
Only small quantities of easily digested food should be given 
for the first few days (beef extract, rice soup, white of eggs, 
small quantities of milk, oatmeal gruel). In cats very small 
amounts of milk or rice soup show the best results. 

Medical.— A tliorough lavage of the stomach witli warm 
water or a sodium bicarbonate solution (2 per cent.) should 
always be the first tiling attempted. It can be done readily 
in the following manner: The animal is placed on a table 
and held by an assistant; a stomach tube is then intro- 



148 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

duced into the stomach (see Foreign Bodies in Esophagus) 
and the free end depressed to allow some of the stomach 
contents to flow out. Should the contents be too thick to 
pass out through the tube, some of the 2 per cent, soda 
solution (about 500 c.c.) is introduced into the stomach by 
elevating the free end of the tube. Attach a funnel to the 
tube and gradually pour in the solution. After it has entered 
the stomach by gravity, allow it to remain for a few minutes, 
depress the tube and allow it to flow out again. This opera- 
tion should be repeated until the liquid flows out freely and 
is clear of food particles and mucus. It is advisable in severe 
cases to repeat this treatment daily for three or four days and 
after this at biweekly intervals. 

Bitter stomachics (tincture gentian compound 4.0; or 
tincture of Colombo 2.0) are indicated before feeding to 
stimulate the mucous membrane and the muscular walls of 
the stomach. Small doses of pepsin and hydrochloric acid 
are indicated in severe cases to assist in digesting the food. 
These should be administered shortly after feeding to obtain 
the best results. Artificial Carlsbad salts (8.0) given twice 
daily is valuable as a stomachic and anticatarrhal agent for 
the mucous membrane. Further, in cases where there is 
considerable fermentation, salicylic acid (0.2-0.5) or creosote 
(0.1) is useful to arrest the fermentation. These drugs should 
be repeated at each meal to obtain the desired results. 



FOREIGN BODIES IN THE STOMACH. 

Etiology.— Dogs often swallow foreign bodies with the 
food, or during play, which pass into the stomach and pro- 
duce symptoms of a serious nature. Most commonly the 
foreign bodies consist of small rubber balls, glass marbles, 
peach stones, stones, needles, pins, and meat skewers. Dur- 
ing rabies (see Rabies), owing to the vitiated appetite, dogs 
eat large quantities of foreign material, such as splinters of 
wood, pieces of cloth, stones, straw, etc. 

Cats often take with the food, needles, pins, fish bones, 
fruit stones, which enter the stomach and remain for some 



FOREIGN BODIES IN THE STOMACH 149 

time producing alarming s>^Ilptoms. Birds often pick up 
metallic substances ^dth the food (nails, pins, etc.)- 

These substances after entering the stomach may remain 
for a long time without producing any marked disturbance. 
However, as a rule they produce an acute or chronic gastritis 
and sharp objects may penetrate the walls of the stomach 
producing an acute inflammatory condition, or peritonitis. 
Hair balls are occasionally found in the stomach of rabbits 
and dogs. 

Symptoms.— In a large percentage of cases where foreign 
bodies are taken there are no symptoms noticeable, espec- 
ially where the foreign bodies are small and regular in outline. 
These will often pass out via the intestinal tract or be vomited 
up without interfering with the function of the stomach or 
producing general symptoms. When the foreign bodies are 
of large size, irregular in outline, or sharp, they often produce 
symptoms of acute or chronic gastritis (see Acute and 
Chronic Gastritis). Very commonly the foreign bodies 
produce extensive irritation of the mucous membrane, 
penetrate the walls of the stomach or obstruct the pylorus 
producing severe vomiting (which is persistent), complete 
loss of appetite, intense thirst, hematemesis (from the ero- 
sions on the mucous membranes or some of the bloodvessels 
being injured by the sharp objects). Where extensive injury 
is produced in the membranes, the animals often show excit- 
able symptoms, howling and other symptoms similar to 
rabies (see Rabies), stiffness in gait, and walk with the back 
arched. By palpation over the region of the stomach (espe- 
cially in cats, rabbits and in some breeds of dogs), the foreign 
bodies can often be detected and their character determined. 
When perforation of the walls of the stomach is produced by 
sharp objects, symptoms of acute peritonitis develop (see 
Peritonitis). Lastly, under symptoms of general weakness, 
subnormal temperature, and very weak, imperceptible pulse 
the animals often die from exhaustion. 

Diagnosis.— The characteristic symptoms, the anamnesis 
and careful palpation make the diagnosis rather easy when 
foreign bodies are present in the stomach. Direct i)al])a- 
tion of the walls of the stomach (explorative hiparotomy) 



150 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

is to be recommended in some cases where the diagnosis 
is in doubt. In other cases the Roentgen rays will assist 
in locating the foreign body. However, this method is 
rather difficult owing to the location of the stomach and its 
relationship to the adjacent organs. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis depends upon the character, 
size and condition of the foreign body, the general condition 
of the animal and the possibility of its removal. In most 
cases the prognosis should be made unfavorable. 

Treatment.— J/gc?zcfl/.— Emetics are often of value in 
remo^dng foreign bodies from the stomach. Subcutaneous 
injection of apomorphin hydrochlorate (0.005-0.01) should 
be administered and the vomitus carefully inspected to 
determine whether or not the foreign body has been ejected. 
Should this method fail, surgical means should be employed 
as early as possible. 

Surgical.— This consists in performing laparotomy and 
gastrotomy as follows : 

Laparotomy.— This operation should be performed at the 
median line whenever it is possible to do so. When the inci- 
sion is made through the linea alba, healing may not be quite 
so rapid as if it were made just to one side through the 
muscular tissue. The former position is to be preferred, 
however, as there is little or no hemorrhage to interfere with 
the operation, and, as both sides of the wound are alike, the 
edges can be more evenly approximated by suturing. 

The animal being secured in the dorsal position, and 
under general anesthesia, the skin at the field of opera- 
tion is clipped and shaved of all hair and cleansed, first with 
soap and warm water and then ^-ith antiseptic solution 
(boric acid 2 per cent.; creolin 2 per cent.; mercuric bichlorid 
1-2000). 

When the operation is not extremely urgent, it is best to 
apply an antiseptic pack (boric acid powder) over the field 
of operation after cleansing for the twenty-four hours preced- 
ing in order to ensure better antisepsis of the skin. Sterilize 
the following instruments: Scalpel, probe pointed bistoury, 
scissors, artery forceps, a full curved needle and suturing 
material. The incision is made with a sharp scalpel through 



FOREIGN BODIES IN THE STOMACH 151 

ail the tissues down to the peritoneum. Considerable care 
should be taken in going through this in order to avoid 
puncturing the abdominal organs. It is best to grasp a 
small part with forceps and clip it out with the scissors, 
making an opening large enough to insert the probe pointed 
bistoury and with this enlarge the incision the desired length 
which depends on the operation to be performed and on the 
size of the operator's finger. One and one-half inches is 
sufficient for most cases, although it may be made large 
enough in a large dog to admit the entire hand. Absorbent 
cotton or a pledget of gauze moistened with antiseptic solu- 
tion is useful to keep the wound free from blood, but none of 
the antiseptic fluids should be allowed to enter the peri- 
toneal cavity. Sterile water should be used to cleanse any 
portion of the viscera or peritoneum exposed . To suture the 
laparotomy wound, use medium-sized silk or linen suture 
material and make interrupted sutures about one-quarter to 
three-eighths of an inch apart depending upon the thickness 
of the abdominal wall. Using a long, slender, full curved 
needle, start about one-quarter of an inch from the margin 
of the wound, and pass it through the muscle and peritoneum, 
having the index finger inserted in the wound to prevent 
the needle entering the viscera, particularly the intestine or 
bladder, and bring it out on the other side at the same dis- 
tance from the margin so that when tied, and swelling occurs, 
one edge will not be forced above the other. The surgeon's 
knot, i. e., wrapping the first half of the knot twice, should 
be used, and if omentum is forced out when suturing it may 
be pushed back with blunt forceps as the knot is being tied. 
To avoid a hernia following this operation, be sure that the 
sutures pass through all the layers of the abdominal wall, 
i. e., skin, muscle, aponeurosis, and peritoneum. 

Gastrotomy.— Perform laparotomy, as above, in the median 
line and about one-quarter of an inch posterior to the xiphoid 
cartilage, making the incision about two and a half inches 
long. Grasp the stomach with the thumb and finger and 
draw it out as far as possible. Pack it securely with sterile 
cotton squeezed out with sterile water, or with dry sterile 
gauze to prevent any of the stomach contents from entering 



152 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

the peritoneal cavity when the incision is made. Have an 
assistant support the stomach by grasping it at either end 
with thumb and finger. Make the incision at the greater 
curvature and at right angles to the long axis of the stomach, 
and at a point where the bloodvessels are few and small. 
The organ is best opened by puncturing with a sharp pointed 
bistoury through the muscular and mucous coats and then 
enlarging it with the scissors, the length of incision depending 
upon the size of the foreign body to be removed. The removal 
of large sharp pointed bodies must be done with care and, if 
possible, they should be crushed to avoid making too long 
an incision. Blunt dressing forceps are useful to grasp small 
objects. The division of the muscular coat allows it to con- 
tract while the mucous coat projects out through the excess 
of mucous membrane so that its edges may be evenly approxi- 
mated. Suture the mucous membrane with interrupted 
sutures one-eighth of an inch apart, then suture the muscular 
coat in the same way, being careful to bring the edges in 
close contact. A Lembert suture is then applied over the 
wound to invert it. This is made by inserting the needle 
through a small portion of the muscular coat on one side of 
the wound, carrying it over and inserting the same way on 
the other side, and these when tied will invert the wound 
and bring the peritoneal surfaces of either side of the wound 
in apposition, which favors an early adhesion and prevents 
the escape of the stomach contents. These sutures will be 
encapsuled and are not to be removed. Cleanse the surface 
of the stomach and return to the abdominal cavity. All 
food should be withheld for twenty-four hours, after which 
time a small amount of liquid food (milk, beef broth) may 
be fed for a few days when the regular diet may be given. 

ACUTE DILATATION OF THE STOMACH. 

Etiology.— This condition is observed more frequently in 
dogs and rabbits than in other small animals. It is most 
frequently produced by overloading the stomach, especially 
when large quantities of indigestible or dry foods are taken. 
Such substances as potatoes, bread (dry), dog biscuits, blood, 



ACUTE DILATATION OF THE STOMACH 153 

some green foods, grains, etc., are the ones most liable to 
produce the condition. Dogs when very hungry, will often 
eat an entire bird, rat or mouse, without masticating it. 
When the mass reaches the stomach it will cause a sudden 
dilatation. 

Debilitating Condition. — Both general and local, such as 
rachitis, anemia, toxic conditions, infections, diseases of the 
heart, etc. These conditions may be the result of various 
influences which alter the tone of the muscular wall, either 
indirectly by affecting nervous control, or more directly by 
toxic action on the muscle. 

Previous gastric diseases often predispose to the condition, 
usually through fermentation, distending the walls leading to 
the gaseous form of acute dilatation. Excessive secretions 
at the same time will assist in the dilatation. 

Injuries.— Such as blow^s on the abdomen, being run over 
by vehicles, spinal injuries, abdominal operations (ovari- 
otomy) have been known to produce dilatation. 

Pathology.— The stomach is usually of enormous size, 
extending back nearly to the pelvis. The color is bluish, 
purple-red, or pale, and the wall is often very thin. The 
dilatation not infrequently involves the duodenum and in 
some cases may extend to the other small intestines. At 
times the stomach will be found distended with hard, undi- 
gested food masses, and in rabbits rupture of the stomach at 
the greater curvature often takes place from the distention 
with food and gases. 

Symptoms.— Vomiting is one of the early symptoms and 
the vomitus consists in many cases of particles of hard food 
masses, fluids, etc. Owing to the act of vomiting taking place 
early, some of the material will be ejected, so that in many 
cases this w411 be the principal symptom noticeable. However, 
in some cases where the stomach contents are not removed by 
vomiting, more serious symptoms develop. There is profuse 
ptyalism, accelerated pulse, dyspnea, evidences of severe pain 
such as howling, excitement, etc. In severe cases fermentation 
often takes place in the intestinal tract, ])r()(lucing severe dysp- 
nea and death in a short time. In rabbits and some breeds 
of dogs, by palpation, the stomach will often be found greatly 



154 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

distended with food masses, gas, and fluids, which can readily 
be distinguished through the abdominal walls. Very often 
the s\Tnptoms of this condition are similar to acute gastritis 
(see Symptoms of Acute Gastritis). 

Diagnosis.— A correct diagnosis requires a careful and 
accurate anamnesis. This condition is often mistaken for 
some acute abdominal disease, such as peritonitis, acute 
gastritis or intestinal obstruction. However, by carefully 
obser\ing the symptoms, and by palpation, together with 
the anamnesis, the diagnosis is usually made without much 
difficulty. 

Prognosis.— In those cases, due to overloading, the prog- 
nosis is considered favorable; when due to other causes it is 
unfavorable as complications are liable to ensue which often 
terminate fatally. 

Tre&tment.— Medical.— Vshen due to overloading the 
stomach or from foreign material, emetics are indicated 
early to remove it. Apomorphin (0.005-0.01) should be 
administered subcutaneously, and the stomach carefully 
kneaded to break up the food masses and to mix the con- 
tents with the secretions so that they will be more easily 
ejected. After the material has been removed by vomit- 
ing it is advisable to administer sodium bicarbonate solu- 
tion (2 per cent.) to remove irritating material from the 
surface of the mucous membrane. (See Treatment of 
Acute Gastritis). In cases where there is a lack of tone in 
the muscular walls from pressure by retained food masses, 
gas, etc., or defective nervous control of the muscle, the 
administration of strychnin sulphate (0.0005-0.001 daily), 
or tincture of nux vomica (0.3-0.6 twice daily) has been 
found advantageous. 

Surgical.— In severe cases w^here the food particles cannot 
be removed by emesis, or where foreign material is present, 
it is advisable to remove it by performing gastrotomy. (See 
Surgical Treatment of Foreign Bodies in the Stomach). 

CHRONIC DILATATION OF THE STOMACH. 

Etiology.— While not common in small animals it is occa- 
sionally observed, and consists of a dilatation of the 



CHRONIC DILATATION OF THE STOMACH 155 

stomach, which is very commonly produced by food masses 
remaining in the stomach for a long period, producing press- 
ure on the walls of the stomach leading to a lack of tone 
in the muscular wall. This allows further accumulation of 
fluids and gases from the fermentation of the food contained 
and consequently the stomach becomes dilated. In some 
individual animals the walls of the stomach are relatively 
weak, and after eating, the food w^ill remain in the stomach 
for too long a period, and gradually produce a chronic dila- 
tation. Many of the causes enumerated under acute dilata- 
tion, if continued for some time, will result in the chronic 
condition. 

Stenosis of the pylorus is one of the most frequent causes 
of this condition. The etiological factors producing the 
stenosis are the follomng: Spasm, gastric ulcer, erosions 
of the mucous membranes resulting in cicatrix formation. 
Foreign bodies which may remain in the stomach for a 
long period, and produce by their constant irritation hyper- 
trophy of the mucosa of the pylorus, resulting in a nar- 
rowing or complete closing of the pyloric opening. Tumors, 
either malignant or benign, extending into the pylorus. 
Tumors, outside of the stomach (carcinomas, sarcomas) 
and associated with adjacent organs or tissues. These by 
producing pressure upon the duodenum will narrow the 
lumen and result in a stenosis. Inflammation in organs 
adjacent to the stomach as the liver and pancreas; or omental 
adhesions which occur commonly after abdominal opera- 
tions, or by being injured, as blows to the abdomen or being 
run over by vehicles. The stenosis which is produced by 
the above causes will interfere with the passage of the food 
from the stomach where it remains too long eventually 
leading to chronic dilatation. In old dogs it frequently 
results from chronic obstipation. Further, debilitating dis- 
eases will often produce it by interfering with the nervous 
control of the stomach. 

Pathology.— The stomach is much enlarged and in many 
cases distorted. When due to stenosis or obstruction to the 
pylorus, the stomach walls are greatly thickened. The nuis- 
culature is hypertrophic and the nuicous membrane is often 



156 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

several times its normal thickness, with all the evidences of 
a chronic inflammation. When no stenosis exists, the dila- 
tation being produced by other causes, the muscular wall is 
very thin and atrophic. In some cases the mucous mem- 
brane shows areas of atrophy and hypertrophy alternating. 
The interstitial tissue is often infiltrated with fibrous tissue. 

Symptoms.— In dogs the symptoms are very similar to 
chronic gastritis. There is a partial or complete loss of appe- 
tite, intense thirst, especially if the pylorus is obstructed, 
the patients drinking large amounts of water which is after- 
ward vomited. 

Constipation is also quite marked in most cases of chronic 
dilatation. As no water can pass from the stomach to the 
intestines, the contents of the intestinal tract become hard 
and dry to be passed with difficulty, or retained as a hard 
mass in the posterior part of the bowels. When dilatation 
occurs without stenosis of the pylorus large amounts of water 
will pass into the intestinal tract producing diarrhea, which 
may alternate with constipation. Emaciation is usually 
quite marked, especially in advanced cases, because no 
nutriment can be absorbed. In some cases where there is 
only a partial stenosis the emaciation will be more gradual, 
as some food will be passed to the small intestines. Severe 
pain, the animal often showing excitable symptoms, howling, 
etc., is shown a short period after eating, due to the par- 
ticles of food passing through the narrowed lumen of the 
pylorus. Where no stenosis exists there is but little pain. 
Vomiting is a constant symptom, especially in obstruction 
of the pylorus, and usually occurs shortly after feeding. The 
patient will sometimes eat the ejected mass again only to 
repeat the act of vomiting. This symptom is quite charac- 
teristic coming as it does shortly after eating and continuing 
in some cases in the same manner for days or even weeks. 

Gradually the animals become weak, anemic, the tempera- 
ture subnormal, and die from inanition. 

Palpation over the region of the stomach will often reveal 
the enlarged organ with its contents; percussion gives a 
tympanitic sound. 



• ULCERATION OF THE STOMACH 157 

Diagnosis.— Diagnosis is rather difficult in most cases. 
The chronic course, the characteristic symptoms, and the 
findings of an explorative laparotomy suffice to make the 
diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis should be carefully guarded 
until the causes and condition of the stomach are thoroughly 
understood. Complete recovery is possible in both forms of 
this disease, provided the wall of the stomach is not perma- 
nently damaged and the general condition of the animal 
capable of improvement. However, in stenosis of the pylorus, 
it should always be considered unfavorable when tumors are 
present. 

Treatment.— D-ieMic— Small amounts of easily digested 
food are to be given at short intervals during the day rather 
than large quantities at long intervals. In some cases where 
vomiting is persistent, rectal feeding should be employed 
giving albumen or predigested foods. 

Medical. — In dilatation accompanied by lack of tone of 
the muscle stomachic tonics, such as tincture of nux vomica 
(0.3-0.6 twice daily) or strychnin sulphate (0.0005-0.001), 
may be used. 

Massaging or kneading the abdominal wall over the 
stomach is a valuable adjunct to increase the muscular tone. 
When stenosis exists surgical interference is the only thing 
that will give relief; it should be resorted to as early as 
possible. (See Gastroduodenostomy) . 

ULCERATION OF THE STOMACH. 

Ulcus Ventricidi. 

Definition.— This condition is a more or less progressive 
destruction through necrosis beginning in the mucosa and 
often extending to and through the deeper layers of the 
stomach wall. True ulcers appear only where the gastric 
juice flows. They are found in the dog at the extreme lower 
end of the esophagus, in the stomach wall itself, and in a 
portion of the duodenum al)ove the opening of the bile (luct. 
The ulcerations may be acute or chronic. Sometimes a ten- 
dency to cicatrization and healing is shown. At tlu^ ])oint 



158 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

where the stomach tissue is destroyed an oval or round 
opening or depression with irregular margins appears. The 
more chronic the process the greater the irregularity in 
outline. 

Etiology.— Simple ulceration of the stomach is due to a 
destruction of the gastric epithelium caused chiefly by a dis- 
turbance in blood circulation in the stomach and hyperacidity 
of the gastric juice. It is often brought about by inflammation 
of the mucosa or hemorrhages, resulting from poisonous sub- 
stances, caustics, drugs (when administered in too concentrated 
form); sharp foreign bodies; during the course of infectious 
diseases (distemper, etc.), or from an invasion by the Bacillus 
necrophorus (puppies and kittens), or other local infections. 
General infection (pyemia) may too be a causative factor. 
These infections produce an extensive inflammation of the 
mucosa, often leading to a disturbance in the circulation, 
interfering with nutrition, and ultimately leading to an ulcera- 
tive process. Wounds of the mucous membrane from external 
violence, partial rupture of the stomach walls or parasitic 
invasion are causes. They are often contributory to the 
beginning of the ulcerative process. Embolism is also a cause, 
producing infarcts in the mucosa and submucous tissue. 
Hemorrhagic erosions and hemorrhages occurring and 
associated with chronic diseases of the heart, liver or kidneys 
are probable causes. Hyperacidity may produce gastric 
ulcer when from any cause the mucous membrane is injured, 
the acid acting upon the ends of exposed vessels by contract- 
ing them, thus inducing local anemia and eventually necrosis. 

Pathology.— The typical ulcer is round or oval, extending 
more or less deeply into the mucous membrane or the wall 
of the stomach. They have a characteristic funnel shape, 
and when acute form a rather regular outline, while in ulcers 
of long standing the margins become very irregular. When 
chronic ulcers are present, the entire wall is usually thickened. 
Sometimes a coalescence of the ulcerations or erosions occurs. 
When ulceration becomes severe and the submucosa is 
involved, adhesions exist with adjacent organs. 

S'ymptoms.— In quite a large percentage of cases of mild 
ulceration or erosions the symptoms are never observed 



ULCERATION OF THE STOMACH 159 

during the life of the animal. In more advanced ulcerations 
the symptoms are often very similar to chronic gastritis 
(see Chronic Gastritis). Bloody vomiting is a characteristic 
symptom. The amount of blood ejected varies depending 
upon the extent of the injury to the vessels done by the ulcera- 
tive process. This condition usually persists for a long time 
with exacerbations and remissions. When the ulcer perfo- 
rates the wall of the stomach symptoms of acute peritonitis 
develop rapidly and a fatal termination soon follows. 

General symptoms of emaciation, weakness, and disturb- 
ances of the intestinal tract are usually observed. 

Diagnosis.— An accurate diagnosis is very difficult, and can 
only be made by a careful observation of the symptoms. 
When ulceration is suspected laparotomy can be performed 
(see Foreign Bodies of the Stomach) to determine the condi- 
tion of the stomach. However, when the ulcerative process 
is slight or only erosions are present, even this examination 
may not suffice for diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is always unfavorable, as only 
the advanced cases are recognized clinically. 

Treatment.— Dietetic— Only small quantities of easily 
digested food (beef broth, milk, small amounts of lean meat 
finely divided) should be allowed, as there is danger of the 
wall rupturing at the point of ulceration. 

Medical.— Astringents and hemostatics are indicated (bis- 
muth subnitrate 0.3-0.5, or silver nitrate 0.05-0.1 well 
diluted in distilled water) . These preparations can be admin- 
istered two or three times daily, depending upon the action 
desired. Where severe hemorrhage takes place, adrenalin 
chlorid (1.0-2.0 of a 1-1000 sol.) may be given several 
times daily until the hemorrhage stops. To neutralize the 
acid secretions in the stomach Carlsbad salts (2.0-4.0) can 
be used twice daily. In cases where vomiting is persistent 
small doses of tincture of opium (0.2-0.5) are administered 
every two hours until vomiting ceases. 

Surgical.— In some cases where medical treatment does not 
aft'ord relief, laparotomy shoukl be performed (see Foreign 
Bodies of the Stomach) and the uk-erated area extir]')nted 
(see (jastrotomy, under Foreign Bcxhes of the Stomach). 



160 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

HEMATEMESIS. 

Definition.— Hematemesis is the vomiting of blood. It is 
merely a symptom. The hemorrhage does not always come 
from the stomach itself, but from structures contiguous to 
the stomach. In small animals hematemesis is much more 
common than is usually recognized, but unless large quanti- 
ties of blood are vomited, it escapes notice. Often scant 
hemorrhages go unrecognized, the determination of which 
would be valuable for the diagnosis of some diseases. 

Etiology.— In hematemesis there may be no anatomical 
lesions on the mucous membrane (diapedesis) ; or the lesions 
may be very small but numerous and the hemorrhages 
copious coming from a large surface of the mucosa. On the 
other hand the lesion in the mucosa may be quite marked 
(rhexis; ulcer, etc.) . In the dog hematemesis is quite common 
and has the f ollomng causes : 

Local causes: Ulcerations on the mucosa; erosions on the 
mucosa; acute and chronic gastritis; tumors; trauma which 
may be direct (foreign bodies, injury from stomach sound) 
or indirect (straining during vomiting, stomach operations) ; 
chemicals (poisons, purgatives, emetics). 

Indirect local causes are further : Obstruction to the portal 
circulation; pressure on the portal vein; thoracic diseases 
disturbing circulation; organic heart lesions, etc. 

Hematemesis may occur also from many general causes 
which produce at the same time hemorrhage from several 
of the mucous membranes. The following are the most 
common conditions: Septicemia; autotoxic conditions, 
uremia, etc.; blood dyscrasias and diseases, hemophilia, 
scurvy, pernicious anemia, leukemia. The blood may have 
its origin outside the stomach and come from contiguous 
abscesses rupturing the stomach wall, or from ulcers and 
fistulse which may open a suppurating tract into the stomach. 

Hematemesis also occurs during the course of infectious 
diseases (distemper, rabies). 

Pathology.— The pathological findings depend upon the 
amount of the hemorrhage. When the hemorrhages prove 
fatal there is a general pallor of all the \dscera; where the 



HEMATEMESIS 161 

hemorrhages have been slow and continuous fatty degenera- 
tions of the heart, Hver, kidneys, gland cells are observed. 
The original cause will in part determine the nature of the 
pathological changes. The mucous membrane of the gastro- 
intestinal tract is pale, and remains of the hemorrhage will 
be noticed along its course, which is of a dark color and more 
or less tarry. At the seat of the hemorrhage will be found 
eroded vessels, and sometimes imperfect clot formation. 
Other lesions found are those of ulceration, foreign bodies, 
depending upon the original cause of the hemorrhage. 

Symptoms.— These depend very largely upon the amount 
of hemorrhage and rapidity with which it flows. When 
the amount of hemorrhage is small the symptoms may be 
entirely overlooked. The vomited blood may be only in 
small quantities often poorly mixed with the ejected food. 
The color of the blood depends upon the amount and length 
of time remaining in the stomach. When fresh, the color is 
bright and the cells are unchanged; when retained in the 
stomach some time before it is ejected, it is dark, the oxy- 
hemoglobin being changed to hematin, and resembles coffee 
grounds. A microscopic examination of the ejected mass 
will at once reveal the presence of large numbers of red cor- 
puscles unless the blood has been retained in the stomach 
long enough for the red corpuscles to become entirely dis- 
integrated. 

When severe hemorrhages take place in the stomach, some 
of the blood will pass into the intestinal tract to be passed 
out with the feces. The feces Avill be of a dark tarry consist- 
ency, with a disagreeable odor. If examined the blood 
pigment will be found in large quantities. 

General symptoms of internal hemorrhage are noticed in 
the more severe cases. The mucous membranes suddenly 
become pale and colorless, the pulse very weak and. often 
imperceptible, dyspnea and general weakness appear. If 
repeated hemorrhages do not result fatally the patient 
suffers from chronic anemia. 

Diagnosis.— This depends upon the ])rcsence of the blood 
mixed with the vomitus. Care should be taken in making 
the diagnosis in the dog as they often eat large quantities of 
11 



162 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

clotted blood, or lick blood from bleeding surfaces which 
may produce vomiting. When this is suspected the general 
symptoms should be carefully considered and a careful 
anamnesis obtained if possible. 

A microscopic examination of the contents from the 
stomach and bowels will in most cases assist in arriving at 
an accurate diagnosis. It may be differentiated from hemor- 
rhage of the lungs by the presence of food particles, and 
the absence of air mixed with the material, and from the 
fact that it usually has an acid reaction from contact with the 
gastric juice. 

Prognosis.— This depends very largely upon the cause, and 
to a less extent upon the severity of the hemorrhage. When 
resulting from wounds in the mucosa when not too extensive 
it should be considered favorable. However, when due to 
ulceration of the mucosa, or resulting from general causes the 
prognosis is unfavorable. 

Treatment.— The early indication in the treatment is 
to keep the animal in a quiet place free from all excite- 
ment or noise. The administration of cold water (ice water) 
internally or cold applications to the epigastrium in the 
form of cold water or ice are beneficial. To control the 
hemorrhage when severe, adrenalin chlorid solution (1.5-2.0 
of 1-1000 solution), or ergotin (0.2-1.0) subcutaneously 
should be given every two or three hours until the hemor- 
rhage stops. Gelatin given iria the mouth has been highly 
recommended for the same purpose. In less severe cases 
mild astringents (tannic acid, lead acetate, tannoform, alum) 
are to be used. Where general weakness is well marked 
subcutaneous injections of strychnin sulphate (0.0005-0.001), 
or caffein citrate (0.06-0.19) are to be used to stimulate the 
heart action, and as a general stimulant. Saline infusions 
given as rectal injections, intravenous injections, or intra- 
peritoneally are indicated in severe hemorrhages to replace 
the loss of blood in the body. W'hen hematemesis is due to 
other diseases, the cause should be determined and treat- 
ment applied accordingly. 

All food should be withheld for at least two days, and then 
allowed only in small quantities. Milk or beef broth is 
useful in this regard. 



PARASITES IN THE STOMACH 163 



PARASITES IN THE STOMACH. 

The parasites that develop in the stomach of the dog are 
very rare. The Spiroptera sanguinolenta, a sraall blood red 
worm from 5 to 8 cm. long, is the most common. It forms 
small, tumor-like masses in the mucosa. Occasionally the 
larvae of the Gastrophilis intestinalis are found attached to the 
mucous membrane. Ascarides and taenia commonly migrate 
from the intestines. Taenia are often found in the stomach 
of the cat, the Taenia taeniaeformis being the most common. 
The Ollulanus tricuspis, however, is the only parasite proper 
to the stomach of the cat. 

The adult Ollulanus tricuspis is about 1 mm. long and has 
three points at the caudal extremity. The adult worm lives 
in the gastric mucous membrane and when present in large 
numbers, seriously interferes with the function of the mem- 
brane. The embryos are quite large compared with the 
adult parasite. Some of these embryos are passed with the 
feces while others burrow through the walls of the intestines 
and wander to various parts of their host, particularly the 
pleura, diaphragm, liver and lung, where they form cysts. 
When the free embryos are ingested by rodents they migrate 
into the muscles and become encysted. It is probable that 
their development is completed in the digestive canal of the 
cat that feeds upon the infested rodent. 

Rabbits are chiefly infested with the Strongylus strigosus, 
often found in large numbers, and give rise to a fatal anemia. 
This parasite is 8 to 16 mm. long, body blood red, filiform 
and transversely striated. 

The parasites most common in the anterior portion of the 
digestive canal of birds are the Dispharagus spiralis, Disphar- 
agus nasutus and the Trichosomum contortum. The dis- 
pharagi are from 7 to 9 mm. long and the trichosome 12 to 
17 mm. and are found either entirely embedded in the mucous 
membrane or fixed in it by one extremity and the other 
floating free in the cavity of the organ. The Trichosomum 
contortum is frequently found in adjacent structures, bnt 
is common in the walls of the esophagus. 



164 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

Symptoms.— The parasites which are proper to the stomach 
of small animals and to the anterior part of the digestive 
canal of birds do not as a rule produce any marked symptoms 
unless present in very large numbers. The Spiroptera 
sanguinolenta of the dog may give rise to a chronic gastritis 
with frequent vomiting, an irregular appetite and resulting 
emaciation. The tumor-like masses in which the parasites 
live may perforate the peritoneum and occasion a fatal peri- 
tonitis. Large numbers of the Ollulanus tricuspis in the cat's 
stomach cause a thickening and ecchjTiiosed condition in 
the mucous membrane T^'ith severe gastric disturbance. As 
the larvae of this parasite migrate into the adjacent tissues, 
they can produce extensive inflammatory processes and give 
rise to pleuritis, peritonitis, bronchitis, etc. The Strongylus 
strigosus produces a severe anemia in rabbits by abstracting 
blood from the mucous membrane of the stomach, and by 
so doing produces a disturbance in the function of the stomach 
with inanition as a result. In warren rabbits where they are 
continually subjected to reinfection, this anemia often 
terminates fatally, at times being epizootic in its extent. 

The parasites of birds produce the most serious disturb- 
ance by burrowing in the walls of the esophagus and crop. 
The food when swallowed becomes impacted through loss 
of propelling action of the organ and dilatation results often 
T^^th fatal termination. 

Diagnosis.— An accurate diagnosis of the stomach parasites 
of the dog and cat is difficult. A microscopical examination 
of the feces and vomitus for the larvae may reveal their 
presence. When the general symptoms are indicative of 
parasitism laparotomy and possibly gastrotomy should be 
performed, and a direct examination of the tumor-like masses 
made. In rabbits and birds, as several are usually affected, a 
postmortem examination of one or two of the most t\T)ical 
cases is recommended. 

Prognosis.— Unfavorable in all cases of severe infestation. 
Mild cases in dog, cat and rabbit often recover spontaneously 
or with ordinary treatment. In birds, however, the injury 
to the walls soon leads to dilatation and quite often to a 
fatal termination. 



NEOPLASMS IN THE STOMACH 165 

Treatment.— No satisfactory treatment can be given for 
those parasites living within the tumor masses or burrows 
in the mucous membrane. When such parasites are diag- 
nosed, all the affected individuals should be removed and a 
thorough cleaning given all the houses, runways, and grounds 
to which they have had access. (For ascarides and taenia see 
Parasites of the Intestines.) 

NEOPLASMS IN THE STOMACH. 

Tumors in the stomach especially primary growths are 
very seldom found in small animals. Occasionally secondary 
carcinomas or sarcomas occur. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms observed are very similar to 
chronic gastritis (see Chronic Gastritis). The growth of the 
tumor is often sufficient to increase the size of the abdomen 
and can usually be palpated through the abdominal walls. 
Other symptoms are persistent vomiting, icterus, and loss 
of appetite. When a tumor of the stomach is suspected 
laparotomy should be performed and a direct examination 
made. 

Prognosis . — Unfavorable . 

Treatment.— No attempt should be made to operate malig- 
nant growths. Tumors involving the anterior part of the 
stomach are inoperable owing to the location and close attach- 
ment of the stomach. Fortunately, however, tumors of the 
stomach usually involve the pyloric end, and in such cases 
gastroduodenostomy should be performed removing the 
entire part involved. Gastroduodenostomy must be per- 
formed with considerable care to prevent infection from 
the stomach contents and hemorrhage from the large vessels, 
and also to so place the ligatures as to avoid cutting off 
blood supply from any part of the stomach not removed. 
The modus operandi is as follows: Thoroughly anesthetize 
the animal and secure in the dorsal position. Cover the 
field of operation with sterile cloths and provide plenty of 
suture material (linen machine cord No. 40) and medium- 
sized, straight sewing needles (Emmet's bowel needles). 
Perform laparotomy at the median line from the xii)lioid 



166 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

cartilage to the umbilical scar. Grasp the stomach and draw 
it up through the opening. Ligate the right and left branches 
of the gastric arteries, the splenic and the gastrohepatic 
arteries. The location of the ligatures along the arteries 
depends on the location of the excision. In all cases the 
ligatures must be close to the excision to avoid ha\'ing an 
area of the stomach left without blood supply. Place a gas- 
trectomy forceps, the jaws protected with rubber tubing, 
across the stomach just back of the point of each excision, 
and two others across the part to be removed far enough 
from the others to allow cutting between them ^ith shears. 
The forceps protect against hemorrhage and escape of con- 
tents while the latter prevent escape of material contained 
in the part to be removed. Remove by cutting between the 
clamp with scissors and suture both ends vrith continuous 
suture over and over the cut edges to control hemorrhage, 
and invert the ends by putting in Lembert sutures. Remove 
the forceps and take up a part of the anterior wall of the 
stomach and apply the forceps, ha^dng the part that projects 
through the forceps about two inches long by one-half inch 
through. Do the same with the duodenum about three 
inches from the pylorus. Place the forceps close together 
and apply sutures through the muscular coat close to the 
lower jaw of each forceps, and do not cut off the suture. 
Then make an incision in the stomach close to the line of 
sutures and one in the duodenum to correspond ^ith the one 
in the stomach. Then with a new suture join the distal 
edges of the wound T\ath Connell's sutures, the forceps being 
loosened but left in place to support the stomach. These 
latter sutures invert the cut edges and the first suture can 
now be continued over the Connell suture as a Lembert 
suture. Return the organs and suture the laparotomy 
wound. After forty-eight hours feed liquid food for several 
da vs. 



CHAPTER IX. 
DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. 

Examination.— The intestines can be easily palpated 
through the abdominal wall in most small animals, when 
they are not too fat, and this greatly assists in making an 
accurate diagnosis, especially of foreign bodies, fecal accumu- 
lation (coprolith), etc. This is best done by placing the 
animal in the standing position using both hands, one on 
either side of the abdomen. When necessary to make a more 
careful examination, as for perforating wounds, volvulus, 
etc., explorative laparotomy should be employed. The 
intestines are best reached by making the incision at the 
median line in the middle of the distance from the xiphoid 
cartilage to the anterior border of the pelvis, and of sufficient 
size to permit of a thorough examination of the entire length 
of the intestine. The Roentgen rays can be employed to 
detect foreign bodies. 

The feces should be carefully examined for the following: 
Frequency, color, odor, quantity, consistency, presence of 
blood, parasites or their ova, mucus, foreign bodies, undi- 
gested food. The peristalsis is important and can be exam- 
ined by placing the animal on its side, covering the abdomen 
with a towel or cloth and applying the ear. The phonendo- 
scope is of great assistance for this purpose. Percussion is 
important in differentiating accumulations of fluid or gas 
in the abdomen or intestines. 

ENTERITIS. 

Two forms of enteritis are recognized in small animals, 
viz.: (a) Acute, and (6) chronic. 

Acute Enteritis.— Definition.— This is a catarrhal inflamma- 
tion of the mucous membrane of the small intestine, as well 



168 DISEASES OF THE IXTESTIXES 

as the upper portion of the large bowel. In small animals it 
is impossible from a clinical standpoint to recognize the 
condition as affecting different parts of the bowels as: 
Duodenitis, ileitis, jejunitis, etc. Enteritis very frequently 
accompanies acute gastritis, the causes producing acute 
gastritis often extending into the intestines. 

Etiology.— The etiology is in many respects similar to that 
of acute gastritis: (a) Foreign bodies which irritate, such 
as sharp pieces of bone, needles, pins, etc. These when swal- 
lowed pass through the stomach into the intestines, often 
producing extensive irritation to the mucosa, resulting in an 
acute inflammation. Enteritis may result also from opera- 
tions, such as laparotomy when the bowels are roughly 
handled, rectal injections and manipulations, etc. Powdered 
glass is sometimes given intentionally to small animals, and 
it produces a very severe form of enteritis. 

(b) Chemical substances (carbolic acid, arsenic, phos- 
phorus, mercury, etc.) produce a very severe form of enteritis 
by their corrosive action on the mucous membrane. Chemical 
irritants contained in food when eaten by the animals vdW 
produce the same condition. Sometimes excessive quantities 
of foods, or digestive disturbance may occasion fermentation 
in the intestinal tract and the formation of irritants that 
directly excite an inflammatory condition. Also foods (meat, 
fish) may contain preformed toxic bodies, such as ptomaines 
or other products of bacterial action, which may occasion 
violent inflammation of the bowels. Cats are frequently 
affected by eating fish partially decomposed. Birds, from 
eating substances containing rather large quantities of 
sodium chlorid, suffer from a severe form of inflammation 
of the bowels as the result. 

(c) Exposure to cold, or sudden cooling of the surface of 
the body may produce an enteritis by interfering T\'ith the 
innervation and circulation in the intestinal walls; also 
taking large quantities of cold water, frozen or very cold 
foods will induce it. 

(d) Bacteria probably rarely cause inflammation of the 
bowels directly, but their action upon the intestinal contents 
causing fermentative changes are causes of enteritis. Ente- 



ENTERITIS 169 

ritis is an essential complication in certain infectious diseases 
(distemper, enterohepatitis, etc.). 

(e) Severe infestations with animal parasites can produce 
acute enteritis by the irritant action of the parasites upon 
the mucosa producing congestion and in some cases by 
attaching themselves to the membrane or burrowing into its 
walls. The severity of the inflammation produced depends 
very largely upon the number and species of parasites present. 
This condition is observed most often in puppies and kittens. 
Acute enteritis also occurs secondarily to other diseases, 
such as septicemia, septicemic diseases of birds, peritonitis, 
coccidiosis of rabbits and birds, etc. 

Pathology.— The mucous membrane of the bowel may be 
involved in its entire length with almost equal severity, but 
usually certain portions are more seriously affected than 
others. The mucosa is swollen and reddened, the surface 
usually covered with mucus, which may be tinged with blood, 
and sometimes the submucosa is edematous with hemor- 
rhagic extravasations. The lymphatic follicles are enlarged 
and project out from the mucosa prominently as light patches 
against the inflamed surface of the mucosa. In severe cases 
pseudomembranous or diphtheritic inflammations of the 
mucous membrane of the intestines may be seen occurring 
usually secondary to infections originating elsewhere or 
from the action of corrosive poisons which are very common 
in dogs and birds. In all of these cases the mucous mem- 
brane is covered with an extensive, dirty yellow or grayish 
deposit, appearing as a coating over the surface or as a 
firmly attached pseudomembrane. This pseudomembrane 
may be found in the entire length of the bowel. Areas of 
the necrosis and deep ulceration are often seen where the 
pseudomembrane has been dislodged. Hemorrhages are 
often found under and from the mucosa, the blood mixing 
with the intestinal contents forming a dark red mass. The 
feces are very thin even in the large intestine and have a 
disagreeable odor. The mesenteric lymph glands are swollen 
and edematous. 

Symptoms.— The clinical symptoms in enteritis vary with 
the intensity of the cause and the i)art of the intestinal tract 



170 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 

involved. In milder cases the symptoms are those of diar- 
rhea due to functional disturbances of the bowels. In severe 
cases the symptoms come on suddenly and are of great 
severity. In dogs there is usually constipation in the early 
stages followed in a few hours by diarrhea. The feces, as a 
rule, are liquid, brownish in color and of more or less offen- 
sive odor, depending upon the extent of the putrefactive 
changes and the intensity of the inflammation. In severe 
inflammations due to corrosive poisons, etc., the feces are 
mixed with blood, sometimes passed in quite large quanti- 
ties, and in the form of clots. When due to poisons, the odor 
of the poison is often noticed in the feces. 

Colicky pains are noted and in severe cases intense abdom- 
inal pain is one of the most prominent symptoms. The 
abdominal muscles are tense, contracted, often giving the 
animal a "tucked up" appearance. In severe inflammation 
of the bowels the dog will often lie stretched out on its 
abdomen, shomng intense pain by howling, crying, nervous- 
ness, etc. Sometimes the "nervous symptoms will be promi- 
nent enough to simulate rabies. 

Vomiting is a common symptom provided the stomach is 
involved. The vomitus usually consists of food particles, 
mucus, blood, bile, and in rare cases feces from the small 
intestines. There is loss of appetite except in the very mild 
cases. Fever is more or less high in the early stages, while 
later in the dog it becomes subnormal. The temperature, as a 
rule, cannot be depended upon to determine the severity of 
the condition, as it may be increased in slight cases, and in 
severe, be normal or subnormal. The general symptoms are 
those of weakness, in proportion to the degree of inflamma- 
tion, complete prostration or collapse. The surface of the 
body becomes cold, the mucous membranes cyanotic, there 
is well marked dyspnea and a weak, rapid pulse. In cats 
the diarrhea is a very prominent early symptom. The feces 
are liquid and often mixed with blood. Complete prostra- 
tion takes place earlj^ under symptoms of dyspnea, general 
weakness, and a very rapid weak pulse. 

In birds enteritis begins with diarrhea. The feces are 
of a thin consistency, of a yellowish or greenish color, and 



ENTERITIS 171 

very offensive odor. The feathers in the region of the cloaca 
become soiled, matted together, retaining a quantity of the 
feces which often becomes dried and forms a hard mass 
around the anal opening. There is usually loss of appetite, 
general weakness, the wings are held pendant and the patient 
completely prostrated. In the more severe cases due to 
ptomaines, toxins, etc., the symptoms develop very rapidly, 
and there is but little noticed except subnormal temperature, 
narcosis and coma. Death occurs in a large percentage of 
those cases due to ptomaines, toxins, etc. 

Diagnosis.— The recognition of acute enteritis offers no 
great difficulties in most cases. The anamnesis, sudden 
onset, abdominal pain, and the severe diarrhea are all quite 
characteristic. Only when diarrhea is absent would the 
diagnosis be difficult. A careful examination should always 
be made to determine if possible the cause of the enteritis, 
whether it is a primary condition or secondary to some other 
disease. Examination of the feces should be made both 
macro- and microscopically to determine their condition, 
the presence of blood, foreign material, or of parasites. 

Prognosis.— In ordinary cases of enteritis the prognosis is 
usually favorable. However, it depends very largely upon 
the cause, and all cases should be considered serious until 
the cause can be determined. When due to corrosive poisons, 
ptomaines, toxins, etc., the prognosis should be considered 
very unfavorable depending upon the amount of the material 
ingested. In cats the prognosis should be guarded as these 
animals are very sensitive to intestinal disturbances. 

HieabimeTit.— Hygienic— The animals should be placed in 
a warm, dry place which is well ventilated and free from all 
noise and excitement. Not too many birds or small animals 
should be allowed in one room, and the floors, roosts, etc., 
should be thoroughly cleaned (daily) and disinfectants, 
such as carbolic acid (5 per cent.) freely used. The drinking 
water should be kept fresh, and the food, when allowed, free 
from dirt, dust, and not contaminated with bowel discharges, 
(collections of feces on the hair and feathers should be 
removed daily with warm water or bicarbonate of soda 
solution (2 per cent) . The mouth may be washed with clean 



172 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 

water to remove all food particles which might remain to 
decompose and eventually be swallow^ed to perpetuate the 
intestinal disturbance. 

Dietetic— In most cases of acute enteritis, all food is 
withheld for at least twenty-four to forty-eight hours. After 
this time, when improvement begins to be noticeable, dogs, 
may be given small amounts of lean meat finely divided, 
milk, beef tea, rice soup, etc., once or twice daily. Rabbits 
should be fed small quantities of roasted oats, corn or barley, 
or roasted bread. For birds small amounts of cooked rice, 
oatmeal, cornmeal or bread and milk may be given once 
daily. Green foods should be withheld at first and only 
allowed in small quantities several days after improvement 
is noted. They tend to increase the diarrhea by their laxa- 
tive action. 

Medical.— In mild cases of enteritis, due to errors in feeding 
or irritating foodstuffs, etc., small doses of laxatives are 
indicated to remove the irritating material from the bowels. 
Castor oil (dogs, 15.0-40.0; cats, 3.0-15.0; rabbits, 5.0-10.0; 
birds, 1.0-8.0), or calomel (dogs, 0.3-0.4; cats, 0.1-0.15; 
rabbits, 0.2; birds, 0.05-0.2) can be administered. Magnesium 
sulphate (dogs, 10.0-15.0; cats, 1.0-5.0; rabbits, 1.0-3.0; 
birds, 1.0-2.0) is frequently used for the same purpose owing 
to its increasing the fluids in the bowels and flushing them 
out more promptly and thoroughly. It is best administered 
in solution with warm water. 

In more severe cases w^here the diarrhea is persistent after 
the use of laxatives, it is necessary to administer styptics, 
such as opium (dogs, 0.1-0.5; cats, 0.005-0.2; rabbits, 0.05- 
0.1; birds, 0.05-0.1). In cases where severe pain is present, 
especially in dogs, morphin sulphate is indicated. It may be 
given (for dogs, 0.02-0.15) as a subcutaneous injection dis- 
solved in water (5.00). 

Astringents are sometimes of value in controlling the 
persistent diarrhea and tannic acid is often administered 
for that purpose in the following dosage: Dogs (0.1-0.5), 
cats (0.05-0.2), rabbits (0.05-O.2), birds (0.01-0.05). 

Where fermentative processes continue in the bowels 
disinfectants may be administered: Lysol (0.5-2.0), creolin 
(0.5-2.0), salol (0.2-0.8). 



ENTERITIS 173 

It is often advisable in dogs to wash out the intestinal 
tract with bicarbonate of soda solution (1 to 2 per cent.) 
followed by alum, tannic acid or iron sulphate solutions 
(1 to 2 per cent.). This can be done quite readily in the 
dog by the use of a flexible rubber tube inserted as far up 
into the bowels as possible. The free end is elevated and a 
funnel attached. The solution is poured into the funnel 
and allowed to gravitate slowly into the bowels. When 
there is no obstruction the fluid will flow into the stomach 
and be ejected through the mouth. In birds it is best intro- 
duced with a small syringe, being careful to avoid using too 
much force. In very severe cases, where general weakness 
is apparent, stimulants are advisable. Subcutaneous injec- 
tions of caffein citrate (0.1-0.5) may be used as a heart 
stimulant. Normal salt solution, at the body tempera- 
ture (100° F.), is of great value in severe weakness from 
hemorrhage or narcosis. It may be introduced intravenously, 
subcutaneously, intraperitoneally or per rectum. 

Chronic Enteritis.— Definition.— This is a chronic inflam- 
mation of the small intestines involving the upper part of the 
large intestines, but often extending to all parts of the intes- 
tinal mucosa. Frequently there is extensive ulceration at 
different places along the intestinal tract. In some cases the 
stomach mucosa is involved from the same causes that pro- 
duce the chronic enteritis. 

Etiology.— Chronic enteritis most commonly develops 
from repeated acute attacks or from the same causes acting 
mildly producing gradually a chronic inflammatory condi- 
tion. (See Acute Enteritis.) 

Chronic enteritis also occurs secondary to other diseases, 
such as chronic diseases of the heart, lungs, and liver which 
cause interference with the circulation in the walls of the 
intestines. Chronic infectious diseases, such as chronic 
distemper, chronic constitutional diseases, rachitis, etc., 
have at times chronic enteritis associated with them. Para- 
sites in the intestinal tract are common causes. 

Pathology.— The intestines always present evidences of 
long-continued inflammation of the mucosa, the surface 
being covered with excessive secretions of mucus or muco- 



174 DISEASES OF THE IXTESTIXES 

purulent material. There are extensive areas of thickening 
in the mucous membrane; erosions and atrophy may too be 
present. Ulcerations and cicatrices are often noted. Ulcera- 
tions may lead to perforation of the bowel wall producing 
a localized area of adhesive peritonitis, or in some cases a 
generalized peritonitis. The mucous membrane is usually 
bluish-red and at various points will be noted light and dark 
points due to the pathological changes in the structure of 
the membrane. The intestinal contents are usually liquid, 
of a slate gray color and emit a very offensive odor. Some- 
times when constipation is present the feces will be dry and 
hard in the large bowels, and of a grayish color. 

Symptoms.— The most conspicuous symptom is a continu- 
ous or intermittent diarrhea. However, diarrhea may alter- 
nate with constipation. The general symptoms are dulness, 
gradual emaciation, rough hair coat and inanition which is 
marked owing to the lost or variable appetite and the inter- 
ference with digestion and food assimilation. From time 
to time the bowels are distended with gases from the fer- 
mentative processes in the intestinal tract. This is especially 
marked when constipation is present and the peristalsis 
reduced. At other times large quantities of gases, feces 
mixed with mucus and often streaked with blood, are passed 
during the period of diarrhea. 

In most cases there is little evidence of abdominal pain, 
except when ulceration of the bowel wall takes place and an 
adhesive or a general peritonitis is produced. Then all the 
evidences of inflammation of serous membranes are present. 
(See Peritonitis). 

Diagnosis. — The long-continued course, the intermittent 
diarrhea, the anamnesis and the general condition of the 
animal will be sufficient in most cases to make a compara- 
tively accurate diagnosis. However, a careful and thorough 
examination should always be made to determine if possible 
the cause of the enteritis. This is valuable especially for a 
proper prognosis and rational therapeutics. The feces 
should be carefully examined for parasites and their ova, as 
these form a frequent cause. 



INTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE— EN TERORRHAGI A 175 

Further, as this condition is often secondary to other 
diseases, a differential diagnosis should always be attempted. 
Look for chronic constitutional diseases, diseases of the liver, 
heart and lungs and chronic infectious diseases. In birds 
an examination should be made for infectious asthenia and 
parasites. 

Prognosis.— Chronic enteritis whether of primary or sec- 
ondary origin should be considered unfavorable owing to 
the pathological changes which have taken place in the 
mucous membrane. Complete recovery can hardly be 
expected even in mild cases. In mature animals the prog- 
nosis is considered more favorable than in young animals. 
When it occurs secondary to other diseases the prognosis 
depends largely upon the primary disease. 

Treatment.— A careful regulation of the diet (see Acute 
Enteritis) is of great importance and should be thoroughly 
impressed upon the attendant. 

Medical.— The action of the bowels should be kept as 
regular as possible by the use of castor oil, magnesium 
sulphate, etc. (See Acute Enteritis.) When diarrhea 
becomes persistent astringents are indicated as in acute 
enteritis. 

Washing out the bowels (see Acute Enteritis) is especially 
valuable in chronic enteritis to remove irritating material, 
mucus, fecal matter, etc. 

If parasites are present proper anthelmintics should be 
employed. (See Parasites in the Intestines.) 

To encourage the appetite and to aid in digestion, bitter 
stomachics (gentian, nux vomica) are indicated. In the 
treatment an attempt should always be made to remove the 
cause; when secondary to other diseases treatment should 
be given to promote the removal of the fundamental disease. 



INTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE. ENTERORRHAGIA. 

Definition.— This is a condition where hemorrhage takes 
place from the intestinal mucosa. It may be due to a definite 



176 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 

change in the structure of the mucosa or occur during the 
course of certain diseases attended by hemorrhagic diatheses. 
Etiology.— The causes of intestinal hemorrhage are quite 
numerous: (a) ^Mechanical agents, such as sharp foreign 
bodies which penetrate the intestinal mucosa and injure the 
bloodvessels, producing a more or less severe hemorrhage. 
Parasites, by their irritating action on the mucous membrane, 
or by burrowdng into the mucosa, will produce the same 
result. Injuries, such a^ being run over by vehicles, kicks, 
blows, etc., over the region of the abdomen will often rupture 
some of the vessels in the intestinal mucosa, resulting in 
hemorrhage. Powdered glass, when administered to destroy 
animals, T\ill produce severe hemorrhage by the fragments 
of glass penetrating the mucosa and opening the vessels. 

(b) During the course of poisonings by chemicals or caustic 
substances, severe hemorrhage often takes place due to the 
corrosive action on the mucous membrane. Drugs, when 
administered in large doses, may produce a congestion of the 
bloodvessels of the mucosa, resulting occasionally in over- 
distention and rupture. 

(c) Hemorrhage takes place sometimes from an engorge- 
ment of the intestinal circulation from diseases of the heart 
and liver, hemorrhagic infarction of the bowel from embolism 
or thrombosis of the mesenteric vessels, intussusception or 
strangulation of the bowel, or hernia. In these cases the 
hemorrhage may result from an overdistention of the blood- 
vessels. 

(d) During the course of some diseases severe hemorrhage 
in the intestinal tract occurs, as in anemias, severe infections 
(distemper) and certain degenerations. 

{e) Tumors (carcinomas) and ulcerations on the mucous 
membranes may lead to severe hemorrhage by destruction 
of some of the bloodvessel walls. Hemorrhoids, collections 
of feces, etc., may produce hemorrhage in the large bowels. 

Symptoms.— Hemorrhage in the intestinal tract is often 
difficult to recognize, unless the quantity of blood is sufficient 
to distend the bowels, or be ejected through the rectum. In 
mild cases of hemorrhage only general weakness and paleness 



INTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE— EN TERORRHAGI A 111 

of the mucous membranes may be recognized. When the 
hemorrhage has been severe from the small bowels the feces 
will be very dark and of a tarry consistency; from the large 
bowels and rectum the color is a bright red the blood being 
well preserved. In severe hemorrhage the symptoms are 
those of extensive hemorrhage from any source. Sudden 
paleness of the membranes, rapid weakness, etc., are the 
most prominent symptoms observed. Repeated small hemor- 
rhages, such as occur during ulceration, action of parasites, 
etc., may produce different grades of anemia, depending upon 
the extent of the hemorrhage. 

Diagnosis.— This can only be made after a careful examina- 
tion of the animal and the discharges from the bowels. When 
slight hemorrhages take place, a microscopic examination 
of the discharges may be necessary to determine the presence 
of blood. 

Prognosis.— This depends upon the cause, and the extent 
of the hemorrhage. In most cases bowel hemorrhage should 
be considered serious, as it is often impossible to determine 
the cause or extent of the hemorrhage. 

Treatment.— The cause should be determined if possible, 
as the treatment depends very largely upon this factor. 
Opium is often of great value to suppress peristalsis. The 
tincture may be used in the following dosage: For dogs 
(0.5-1.0), cats (0.2-0.5), rabbits (0.2-0.5), birds (0.1-0.2). 
Astringents, such as tannic acid, etc., are also indicated. 
They should be administered in rather large doses, and 
repeated every hour or so. Adrenalin chlorid is most useful 
in severe hemorrhage: The dose for dogs is 2.0 of a 1-1000 
solution given everyhour; other animals one-half the quantity. 
Ergot may also be used. Hemorrhage from the rectum or 
large bowels is best treated by injections of gelatin dissolved 
in hot water, astringents (alum 2-5 per cent.), or cold water. 
The injections should be repeated as often as necessary to 
control the hemorrhage. 

When there is great loss of blood, nornuil salt solution 
(500.0) should be administered intraperitoneally or per 
rectum. Further treatment depends upon the symptoms 
that develop. 
12 



178 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 

DIARRHEA. 

Definition.— This term is applied to a too frequent discharge 
of more or less fluid feces. The condition may vary greatly 
in small animals from a slight increase in the daily evacua- 
tions to repeated evacuations of large quantities of liquid 
feces. It is important to note that often repeated evacuations 
of small amounts of liquid feces may occur even when an 
actual obstruction of the bowels (fecal impaction) exists. 

Etiology.— The essential condition in diarrhea is an abnor- 
mal increase of fluid in the feces. The causes, therefore, will 
be found to be those which occasion a rapid evacuation of the 
bowel contents, or a reduction in the absorption from the 
bowels; or an oversupply of fluid in the bowels either from 
the ingestion of large quantities of water or any over- 
abundant secretion from the mucous membrane. 

Normally the contents of the small bowels are fluid. They 
pass from the stomach to the large bowels in a few hours. 
The contents of the large bowels become gradually hardened 
from the absorption of the water during their passage through 
this part of the intestinal tract, which requires in small 
animals, from twelve to twenty hours. x\ny conditions 
therefore that hasten the movements of the contents through 
the large bowels would tend to make the feces softer or liquid. 
The same result may occur from a variety of conditions which 
disturb the process of absorption and keep the feces in a liquid 
state. Occasionally conditions that influence the absorption 
from the mucous membrane, such as irritations of various 
kinds, at the same time excite the secretion of considerable 
quantities of fluids. These same agents may also increase 
peristalsis and thus hurry the contents through the bowels. 
The most common causes of diarrhea therefore are: (a) 
Drinking excessive quantities of water or eating large quan- 
tities of fat meat, lard, or butter will result in diarrhea. The 
unabsorbed fat or its decomposition in the intestinal tract 
acts as an irritant and greatly increases intestinal activity. 

(6) Foods will sometimes produce diarrhea by their irri- 
tating action on the mucous membrane. Such substances 
as table scraps containing fruit stones, parings, or fish, 



DIARRHEA 179 

cheese, milk, etc., may undergo fermentative changes in the 
intestinal tract or from their decomposition contain preformed 
toxic substances which excite diarrhea. Excessive amounts 
of food may set up a diarrhea as a result of derangement of 
the gastric digestion and secondary bacterial fermentations. 

(c) A large number of purgatives, when administered in 
large doses, will produce diarrhea by acting upon the muscle 
of the bowel and the nervous mechanism stimulating peri- 
stalsis and thus hastening the contents through the bowels 
before absorption can take place. Salines (magnesium 
sulphate) increase the amount of fluid in the bowels, and also 
stimulate peristalsis. Some foods in which bacterial decom- 
position has taken place will have an action similar to salines 
greatly increasing the amount of fluids in the bowels by excit- 
ing secretion from the glands in the mucosa. 

(d) In some animals (cat) the nervous mechanism of the 
stomach will be greatly influenced by shock, fright, excite- 
ment, etc., and severe diarrhea may result. 

(e) Diarrhea may result from diseases of other organs. In 
diseases of the stomach, when undigested food is passed 
into the intestines, the resulting irritation may induce severe 
diarrhea. In valvular insufficiencies or other heart lesions a 
congestion of the mucous membrane of the bowel results and 
an excessive secretion follows. Diseases of the kidney may 
also produce diarrhea by vicarious excretion of urea via 
intestinal tract. The urea decomposes producing free 
ammonia which irritates the mucosa causing a severe form 
of diarrhea. 

(/} Various infections in the bowels (distemper, etc.) are 
associated with a more or less intense diarrhea. Infections 
with lesions at some distance from the bowels may have 
diarrhea as a consequence due to the elimination of toxic 
substances from the intestinal mucous membrane, which 
can result in severe diarrhea. An overproduction of bile 
during the course of some diseases of the liver can have the 
same effect. 

(g) Organic diseases of the bowels (catarrhs, ulcerations) 
often lead to diarrhea from the irritation and resultant 
prochicts of decomposition. 



180 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 

(h) The normal contents of the bowels contain numerous 
varieties of organisms, which under abnormal conditions 
may multiply sufficiently or increase in virulence as to 
bee me pathogenic, producing diarrhea. 

(i) Various specific organisms (coccidia, etc.) produce 
diarrhea. They will be considered under the diseases caused 
by them. 

Symptoms.— The clinical symptoms of diarrhea depend 
largely upon the part of the intestine affected and the nature 
of the causative agent. When due to errors in feeding and 
the upper part of the intestine is involved, diarrhea may not 
occur if the posterior bowels remain normal. In diarrhea the 
discharges from the bowels consist of portions of undigested 
food, mucus, etc., and are yellowish or greenish in color, 
due in part to unchanged bile or to pigment derived from 
fermentation. Excessive acidity, which has not been suffi- 
ciently neutralized in the small intestines, may produce 
inflammation in the lower bowel, due to its irritant action 
upon the mucous membrane. In cases where both the small 
and the large bowels are involved the discharges are more 
abundant and liquid. The feces will be very thin and of a 
yellowish or a dark brown color. When the large bowel is 
particularly affected, the animal shows frequent attempts 
at defecation, and only a small amount of feces and blood 
mixed with quantities of mucus will be passed. 

In the more severe forms of diarrhea colicky pains are 
often observed and in some cases the pain becomes intense. 
There are frequent attempts at defecation, and tenesmus 
is not unusual. When severe diarrhea is present it frequently 
produces extreme prostration and in cats complete collapse. 
The extremities become cold, the mucous membranes at 
first pale, later cyanotic and every evidence of extreme 
weakness appears. 

The temperature as a rule becomes subnormal; however, in 
the very early stages it is often elevated one or two degrees. 

The severity of the symptoms and the course depend very 
largely upon the causative agents producing the diarrhea. 
In mild cases it lasts only a few hours; in the severe forms 
several days. 



DIARRHEA 181 

Diagnosis.— This is established mainly by determining the 
cause. The history of the case is of great service in this 
regard. A thorough examination of the animal and feces 
is necessary for a differential diagnosis to distinguish this 
condition from specific diseases of the bowels. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is favorable in most cases but 
depends largely upon the cause. Diarrhea is a symptom and 
not a disease. Until the cause is determined an accurate 
prognosis cannot be made. 

Treatment.— Dietetic— AW food should be withheld for at 
least twenty-four to forty-eight hours, especially where but 
little weakness or prostration is apparent. Should weakness 
develop small amounts of milk, or milk and egg beaten 
together, should be given every four to six hours. Later 
when the symptoms of diarrhea begin to disappear a little 
lean meat may be allowed. Cats may have small quantities 
of rice and milk, or salmon. Birds should be allowed only 
small quantities of oatmeal or seeds. Avoid the use of laxa- 
tive foods, or foods containing irritating material of any kind. 

Medical.— The first indication in the treatment of diarrhea 
is the evacuation of the irritating material from the intestinal 
tract. In a large percentage of cases the spontaneous evacua- 
tions are sufficient to rid the bowels of this material. How- 
ever, as a general rule, it is advisable to assist nature by the 
administration of a laxative to ensure the prompt removal 
of all irritating ingesta. Castor oil (dogs, 15.0-40.0; cats, 
5.0-10.0; rabbits and birds, 1.0-4.0) is valuable. After thor- 
ough evacuation of the bowels opiates are indicated to con- 
trol the excessive peristalsis and secretions. Useful is tinct- 
ure of opium (dogs, 0.5-1.0; cats, 0.2-0.5; rabbits, 0.2-0.5; 
birds, 0.1-0.2). These doses can be repeated every few hours 
if necessary. 

Small doses of lime water are of value to neutralize exces- 
sive acidity which is often a common condition in small 
animals. 

Where severe pain is present, which is rather common in 
the dog, small doses of morphin sulphate (0.05-0.10) may be 
given subcutaneously. 

Where the diarrhea becomes persistent, it should be treated 
as in acute or chronic enteritis. 



182 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 

CONSTIPATION. OBSTIPATION. INTESTINAL 
OBSTRUCTION. 

Definition.— An infrequent or difficult evacuation of feces 
which are abnormally dry or hard; or may be retained. 

Etiology.— The common causes of constipation in dogs are 
lack of exercise and feeding dry food. Dogs kept in the 
house or kennel often withhold the feces until they become 
hard and dry. Usually in old dogs the peristalsis becomes 
slowed and there is lack of tone in the muscular wall with 
some dilatation of the large bowel which causes constipation. 
The passage through the intestine may be blocked by fecal 
masses (coproliths) , foreign bodies, calculi, parasites or hair 
balls, the latter being more common in cats as they lick off 
and swallow loose hair. The lumen of the intestine may be 
narrowed as a result of chronic inflammation, cicatricial 
contraction, stenosis, tumors within the wall, or hemorrhoids. 
Causative conditions external to the bowel are hernias, 
fibrous adhesions or tumors. Other causes are chronic 
inflammation of the liver with suppression of bile; chronic 
diseases of the spinal cord; enlarged prostates in old dogs; 
chronic inflammation of the anal glands ; agglutination of the 
hair with feces at the anus in long-haired dogs. Rabbits 
are commonly affected by eating too much dry food. Hair 
balls or masses of hair and feces are often found in these 
animals. Birds occasionally swallow feathers which accumu- 
late in the intestines interfering with the passage of the con- 
tents. The most common causes are dry feed and foreign 
bodies. 

Pathology.— The feces are dry, hard, usually of a light gray 
color and sometimes covered wiih mucus or streaked with 
blood. Coproliths or calculi or impactions of large size often 
result in necrosis of the intestinal wall with perforation and 
peritonitis. 

Symptoms.— Mild cases show only difficult defecation at 
long intervals (two to four days). The feces are very dry, 
hard and may be streaked with blood from injuries produced 
in the rectal mucosa. 

In severe cases the retained feces decompose producing 



CONSTIPATION— OBSTIPATION 183 

toxins which are absorbed and intoxicate the patient. The 
animal will show depression, loss of appetite, increased tem- 
perature (103°-104° F.), and thirst. Frequent efforts at 
defecation are made, the attempts inducing cries of pain. 
There is a characteristic carriage of the tail which is arched 
as when defecating, and a fulness of the abdomen. Vomiting 
is not uncommon especially in the more acute bases, the 
vomitus containing some bile and feces. Rabbits often show 
paralysis of the posterior parts. Birds make frequent 
attempts to pass feces and usually sit or stand in an upright 
position. By palpation large hard masses in the posterior 
bowel can be determined. 

Digital examination per rectum or over the abdomen will 
often reveal sensitiveness and the impacted fecal masses. 

Diagnosis.— The frequent attempts to defecate, the condi- 
tion of the evacuated material, and the presence of fecal 
masses on digital examination will readily identify the con- 
dition. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in mild cases when due to errors in 
feeding; otherwise depends entirely upon the causes. 

Treatment.— Mild cases of constipation may be relieved 
by the use of a purgative given in full doses (castor oil D. 
15.0-40.0, C. 5.0-10.0; calomel 0.05-0.15), while in chronic 
cases after these purgatives clear the bowel small doses of 
laxatives (extract of cascara sagrada, 2.0-10.0; tincture rhei, 
5.0-10.0) must be given for some time to prevent a recur- 
rence of the condition. Tincture of nux vomica (0.3-0.6) or 
strychnin sulphate (0.001) is useful to stimulate peristalsis, 
especially when there is enervation from diseases of the cord, 
and to increase the tone of the muscular wall in dilatations. 
In obstinate cases large quantities of warm soapy water, or 
oil and water, introduced with a soft rubber tube and irri- 
gator well up into the rectum, will stimulate peristalsis, 
lubricate and soften the fecal masses and facilitate removal. 
A blunt irrigating curette can be used to break down the 
hard masses. Manipulation of the abdomen while irrigating 
is often beneficial. 

Rabbits may be relieved by the use of purgatives (castor oil, 
2.0-4.0; tincture rhei, 0.3-O.G) and a diet of green foods, vege- 



184 DISEASES OF THE IXTESTIXES 

tables, etc. , should be supplied. Chickens may be treated ^^'ith 
enemas of glycerin, or warm soapy water, and massaging over 
the abdomen. Fecal masses, calculi or foreign bodies that can- 
not be evacuated by any of the above methods may be removed 
by laparotomy and enterotomy. This operation should be 
performed early before necrosis occurs in which case enter- 
ectomy must be resorted to and the necrotic portion of the 
intestine resected (see Enterectomy) . The modus operandi 
is as follows : Perform laparotomy (see Laparotomy) at the 
median line just posterior to the umbilicus and "\;\ithdraw 'the 
intestine containing the obstruction. Ligate the bowel vrith. 
a heavy suture or tape on either side of the obstruction 
to prevent escape of contents and control hemorrhage by 
ligating all vessels supphing the part to be operated. Make 
an incision lengthwise of the bowel opposite the blood supply 
and of sufficient length to remove the obstruction which 
must be done carefully. Cleanse the bowel, and suture the 
mucous membrane, and then the muscular coat -^ith con- 
tinuous sutures applied very close to the edge and then apply 
continuous Lembert sutures over these. By suturing the two 
layers separately, there is less tissue in the part to be folded 
on by the Lembert sutures. Remove the ligatures from 
around the bowel and the vessels, cleanse and return to the 
ca\ity. 

Constipation due to cicatricial contraction or stenosis may 
be alle^^ated by entero-enterotomy. Perform laparotomy 
as for enterotomy, T\'ithdraw the part of the intestine involved 
and apply a long bowel clamp length^-ise across a curved 
portion of the bowel, clamping off about three inches above 
the affected area, and another below, ha\'ing not less than 
eight inches between the two clamps. Bring the clamped- 
off portions in apposition, making a circular loop in the bowel, 
thus having the peristalsis in the same direction. Apply 
continuous sutures through the muscular and serous coat 
of the clamped off portion just above the clamps, bringing 
the two parts in contact and leave the suture. ]\Iake an 
incision from one to one and a half inches long of same length 
and position in each bowel. Apply continuous suture over 
the free edges in contact. Loosen clamps but leave in posi- 



VOLVULUS 185 

tion, and continuing with the latter suture, apply Connell's 
sutures closing the opening. Then beginning with the first 
suture apply Lembert sutures around to the point of begin- 
ning. Remove vessel ligatures, cleanse and return to the 
abdominal cavity. 

Followdng these operations all food must be Tvdthheld 
twenty-four to forty-eight hours and then only small amounts 
of liquid food for several days. Tumor formations in the 
bowel are rare but when causing trouble must be removed 
by enterectomy (see Enterectomy ) . 



VOLVULUS. 

Definition.— An intestinal obstruction due to a twisting 
or knotting of the bowel. 

Etiology.— This condition is rare in dogs owing to the 
short mesentery. It may occur following falls or rough 
handling by children during play, or by a portion of the 
bowel passing through an opening in the mesentery caused 
by an injury or f ollomng operations (enterectomy) . 

Pathology.— Volvulus of the bowel is more or less obstructive 
owing to twisting or kinking which it produces. In other cases 
a loop of intestine is twisted about another like a bow knot 
or slipped through an opening in the mesentery which partly 
obstructs the passage of the contents. Gas formation soon 
dilates the bowel further obstructing it and also the blood- 
vessels. When the obstruction is complete the bowel above 
is much distended while the part actually involved, having 
the circulation arrested, will appear dark red and later 
become necrotic leading to peritonitis. 

Symptoms.— As the condition is acute the symptoms appear 
suddenly and are very pronounced. They are abdominal 
pain, accompanied by vomiting, great prostration and a 
hard, rapid pulse. Palpation of the abdomen ma}' or may 
not produce much pain; sometimes no change in the intestine 
can be detected. 

Diagnosis.— The acute abdominal pain, the sudden onset, 
rai)idly increasing severity of the symptoms, vomiting and 



186 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 

rapid pulse, serve to identify volvulus and differentiate it 
from other more chronic forms of intestinal obstruction. 

Prognosis.— Unfavorable unless recognized early when a 
prompt operation affords relief. 

Treatment.— Injections of large quantities of warm water 
or of air into the rectum may be beneficial in some cases. 
However, owing to the rapid changes taking place in the bowel, 
laparotomy should be performed early, and an attempt 
made to reduce the volvulus. Should the involved part of 
the intestine be necrotic, enterectomy must be employed to 
remove the entire part affected. 

INTUSSUSCEPTION. 

Definition.— The invagination of a part of the intestine 
into an adjacent portion. 

Etiology. —The exact causes are not known, although from 
the conditions under which it occurs and by experiments 
it is believed to be due to irregular innervation by which 
a given spot is contracted while immediately below it there 
is a dilatation, thus permitting the latter to invaginate the 
former. It may be produced by supercatharsis, increased 
production of bile (icterus), or the taking of cold w^ater 
immediately following severe exercise, all of which excite 
innervation or produce sudden increase in peristalsis. Pre- 
disposing causes are constipation; dilatations following 
removal of fecal masses by enterotomy; end-to-end enterec- 
tomy, the circular cicatrix being incapable of contraction or 
dilatation which favors invagination; tumors in the intestinal 
wall. Intussusception may involve any part of the small 
intestine. The small intestine may pass in the ileocecal 
valve. Invagination of the colon or rectum may also occur. 

Pathology.— Intussusception is a condition in which one 
part of the bowel slips into another forming a sausage-like 
enlargement of varied length. The enlargement is slightly 
curved from tension of the mesentery. As a result of the 
constriction, blood circulation is interfered with and often 
entirely arrested. In the early stages there is slight redden- 
ing, later the parts are swollen, congested and of bluish color. 



INTUSSUSCEPTION 187 

Adhesions occur between the adjacent layers in a few hours 
and finally the parts become necrotic and may perforate 
leading to peritonitis. The rapidity with which these changes 
occur depends upon the extent of the intussusception as the 
farther the invagination the greater the pressure on the 
bloodvessels; if the circulation be completely obstructed, 
necrosis will occur in a few hours. 

Symptoms. — Intussusception manifests itself early by 
abdominal pain, the tension on the mesentery producing 
the first symptoms. It has been noticed in a few cases 
that the animal will lie on its back in order to ease the 
pain from mesenteric tension. Later symptoms of acute 
enteritis become prominent, the feces frequently show the 
presence of blood, there is tenesmus, colicky pains and 
occasionally vomiting, and the vomitus may be mixed with 
feces. Palpation of the abdomen will often reveal an elon- 
gated enlargement of the bowel and slight pressure will 
cause pain. Palpation is difficult in very fat animals or those 
having a very thick-walled abdomen. 

Diagnosis.— The presence of the painful enlargement of 
the bowel, bloody stools, tenesmus and the sudden occur- 
rence are the principal diagnostic features. 

Prognosis.— Unfavorable in all cases not operated early. If 
recognized early and reduced or the portion excised (enter- 
ectomy) a good recovery may be expected. Spontaneous 
healing may occur by sloughing of the invaginated portion 
and adhesion at the anterior part. 

Treatment.— Intussusception of the posterior part of the 
bowel may be reduced in the early stages by dilating the 
bowel with rectal injections of large quantities of warm 
water, using as much pressure as can be applied safely. Air 
may also be used in the same manner. Purgatives or specific 
stimulants to peristalsis should not be used as they only 
serve to increase the invagination. Operative measures 
should be at once resorted to when other efi'orts fail. A 
laparotomy should be performed at the median line just 
posterior to the umbilical scar, the enlarged portion of the 
bowel sought and attempts made to reduce it by careful 
manipulation. A small blunt probe or scalpt^l handle may 



188 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 

be inserted between the adhered peritoneal surfaces to break 
down the adhesions which hold the two layers together. If 
this is impossible enterectomy must be performed. Place 
ligatures of heavy suture material around the bowel a short 
distance above and below the affected area and cut off the 
bowel with scissors making the incision diagonally across the 
intestine. Cut off the mesentery supporting the part to be 
removed, ligating each vessel as it is reached. Bring the 
parts of the bowel in end-to-end contact and suture with 
ConnelFs sutures or if preferred a lateral anastomosis may 
be used. After-treatment is the same as for enterotomy. 



WOUNDS OF THE INTESTINES. 

Definition. —Wounds of the intestines frequently occur in 
small animals, especially the dog, which is more subject to 
injury than the cat, rabbit or bird. 

Etiology.— The most common causes are: Falling from a 
great height, being run over by vehicles, kicks, or severe 
blows over the abdomen. Punctured wounds of the abdomen 
often penetrate the intestines, such as gunshot wounds or 
those produced by sharp objects (forks, etc.) which penetrate 
the abdominal walls. Penetrating wounds should always be 
considered serious, as the extent of the injury in the abdom- 
inal cavity is difficult to determine. There is also danger of 
infection being carried into the abdominal cavity from with- 
out, or from within, the bowel contents escaping into the 
cavity and causing septic peritonitis. 

Symptoms.— Injuries to the intestines are often difficult 
to recognize, especially those produced by kicks, blows and 
other forms. of external violence. The most prominent symp- 
toms of intestinal wounds are hemorrhage and collapse. 
Often the abdomen will become distended with blood when 
the bowel is ruptured. The anamnesis, paleness of the 
mucous membranes and the sudden enlargement and dis- 
tention of the abdomen usually suffice for diagnosis. However, 
an accurate diagnosis cannot be made, unless an explorative 



WOUNDS OF THE INTESTINES 189 

laparotomy is performed, and the cavity most thoroughly 
inspected. Other organs in the abdominal cavity may also be 
injured by the causes mentioned. The symptoms produced by 
punctured wounds depend very largely upon the extent of in- 
jury to the intestines or other organs. Gunshot wounds when 
of small caliber will not produce any very marked symptoms 
other than tenderness over the abdomen. Healing may follow 
readily. Small wounds may not penetrate farther than the 
mucosa which may pouch outward through the opening and 
prevent the escape of the intestinal contents. Later adhesions 
take place preventing septic peritonitis. Larger wounds, 
however, usually prove fatal under symptoms of collapse 
from hemorrhage or septic peritonitis, unless an accurate 
diagnosis is made and the proper treatment immediately 
applied. When punctured wounds are observed, the animal's 
general condition should be noted at once. Avoid the use of 
probes owing to the danger of carrying infection into the 
cavity. 

Treatment.— The first indication in the treatment of intes- 
tinal wounds is to perform laparotomy (see Laparotomy) 
as early as possible. A generous incision should be made in 
the median line to allow a complete and thorough examina- 
tion of the entire intestinal tract and other organs. The 
intestine should be thoroughly examined the entire length, 
and any wounds found closed with Lembert sutures. If the 
wound is extensive, as a rupture of the bowel, it should be 
closed as in enterotomy. In some cases where the bowel 
wall becomes torn or has an uneven surface, a portion should 
be removed. (See Enterectomy.) 

The organs should also be inspected and any wounds in 
them sutured. 

The abdominal cavity should be thoroughly irrigated with 
a boric acid solution (2 per cent.), or normal salt solution, 
especially in those cases where intestinal contents have 
escaped or blood is present. 

Should the animal be weak from loss of blood, stimulants 
should be given, such as strychnin sulphate (0.001) repeated 
as often as necessary. 



190 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 

CROUPOUS ENTERITIS OF CATS. 

' Membranous Enteritis. 

Definition.— A croupous or membranous inflammation 
involving the mucous membrane of the intestines. 

Etiology. — Croupous enteritis is observed most frequently 
in kittens occurring as an epizootic in certain districts during 
the winter and spring seasons of the year. The exact etio- 
logical factor has never been determined. It is possibly due 
to a virulent form of the colon bacillus aided by a reduction 
in resistance from exposure to cold, irregularities in diet, 
parasites, etc. Older animals are also occasionally affected 
but not in such large numbers. 

Pathology.— The principal pathological changes are noticed 
on the mucous membrane of the bowels, the muscular walls, 
and the mesenteric lymph glands. The mucous membrane 
is highly congested, reddened, swollen, and the surface 
covered with a thick membranous exudate. Often the epi- 
thelial surface and even the submucosa will become loosened 
from the other tissues. The wall of the bowel is edematous, 
and the serous covering shows inflammation. The mesen- 
teric lymph glands are enlarged, edematous, and show acute 
inflammatory changes. The liver, spleen and kidneys show 
similar changes. The contents of the bowels are liquid, and 
contain considerable blood. 

Symptoms.— The early symptoms are: Vomiting and a 
severe diarrhea which come on suddenly and usually affect 
several animals at the same time. There is a complete loss of 
appetite, depression, and in twenty-four to forty-eight hours 
the animals will become very weak, comatose and die from 
exhaustion. 

Diagnosis.— The epizootic character of the disease, the sud- 
den onset and the age of the animal affected are indicative. 
It can be easily mistaken for various kinds of poisonings ; the 
anamnesis therefore should be carefully ascertained to assist 
in the differential diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— Should be considered unfavorable; the largest 
percentage of cases terminate fatally. 



INFECTIOUS ASTHENIA OF BIRDS 191 

Treatment.— Treatment of croupous enteritis is as a rule 
unsatisfactory. Little can be done except the administration 
of general stimulants and bowel disinfectants. As prophy- 
lactic measures, all feeding pans should be thoroughly cleaned 
and sterilized, and the discharges of the bowels carefully 
taken care of to prevent further contamination of the food. 



INFECTIOUS ASTHENIA OF BIRDS. 

Definition.— This is a chronic disease found in birds, which 
affects primarily the duodenum in the form of a chronic 
catarrhal inflammation. 

Etiology.— The cause is a microorganism known as the 
Bacterium asthenise. It develops principally in the duo- 
denum, producing an irritation to the mucous membrane, 
which gradually leads to chronic inflammation. 

Pathology.— The characteristic lesions are: Extreme ema- 
ciation of the muscular system with an almost complete 
absence of fat. The bowels are empty, containing only a 
small quantity of slimy mucus. The walls of the duodenum 
are reddened, thickened, and show all the evidences of a 
catarrhal inflammation of the mucous membrane. The 
duodenal feces will contain large numbers of the Bacterium 
asthenise. 

Symptoms.— Infectious asthenia is observed most com- 
monly in young birds one to six months old. It is charac- 
terized by extreme emaciation, variable appetite, paleness of 
the comb, wattles and membranes. The course is chronic 
and the termination usually fatal in about three months. 
The extreme emaciation which comes on gradually has led 
to the term "going light" being .given it. During the 
course of the disease the birds become weak, anemic, the 
plumage rough; there is general depression which causes 
them to sit in one position for a long time. Death occurs 
from cachexia. 

Diagnosis.— The large number of birds att'ected, the age of 
the birds, the long chronic course, and the characteristic 
lesions found on postmortem are usually suflicient to estab- 



192 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 

lish the diagnosis. The finding of the Bacterium astheniae 
in several of the birds will confirm the diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— Owing to the infectious nature of the disease, 
the chronic course, and the pathological changes which have 
taken place in the duodenal mucosa, the prognosis is unfavor- 
able. Where the disease has reached an advanced stage it is 
ad\dsable to destroy the bird and thoroughly disinfect the 
premises. 

Treatment.— ilfec^icaL— Small doses of laxative, castor oil 
(1.0-4.0) or calomel (0.01-0.05) should be given. 

As a stomachic and tonic iron sulphate may be given in 
the drinking water (1-1000). 

The aromatic seeds (fennel, coriander, anise) may be used 
once or twice daily with the food to stimulate the secretions 
of the stomach and intestines. 

Prevention.— The healthy birds should be separated from 
the sick ones at once. All parts of the houses (roosts, floors, 
etc.) should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with a 
carbolic acid solution (5 per cent.). 



CHAPTER X. 
PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES. 

« 

HELMINTHUSIS. 

In small animals parasites in the digestive tract are very 
numerous. They pass rapidly through the anterior portion 
of the digestive tract, which prevents their becoming fixed; 
also in this portion of the canal secretions for their proper 
development are lacking. In the stomach, owing to its 
acidity, they do not remain long, but are either destroyed 
or pass into the small intestines. In a few instances, how- 
ever, they may burrow underneath the mucosa of the stom- 
ach. The intestines are favorable for the development of 
parasites, owing to their length, the presence of an abun- 
dance of fluid, and the slow peristaltic movement of the 
bowels which does not materially interfere with their fixation 
and development. The majority of the parasites are found 
in the small intestines ; fewer are found in the cecum, colon 
and rectum. Each species of parasite has its particular 
location, and unless in unusual numbers, or under abnormal 
conditions, they will be found infesting an exclusive portion 
of the bowel. Parasites are frequently found in very large 
numbers, and produce serious disturbances in the intestinal 
tract, depending upon the species of parasite and the animal 
infested. The most common parasites found in the intestinal 
tract belong to the animal kingdom, and are: Cestoda; 
Nematoda; Acanthocephala; Coccidia. 

T^NIASIS. 

(^edo(ht. 

The dog is the favorite host of the tjriiiiv. They occur in 
this animal in considerable numbers, sometimes so as to 
13 



194 PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 

excite wonder at the continued good health of the host. 
More than 50 per cent, of the dogs examined harbor worm 
parasites. 

It is essential for the tseniae to have an intermediate host 
to complete their life cycle. The following animals serve 
as intermediate hosts for most of them: Sheep, ox, pig, 
horse, goat, rabbit, and even man. 

The head (scolex) of a taenia is generally expanded and 
supplied with suckers; some species in addition are provided 
with hooks. From this head, by proliferation, is formed the 
neck, a thin non-annulated constriction, which, continuing 
and becoming wider produces the body or strobila. The 
body is in the form of a long, narrow band divided into more 
or less distinct. segments, and as these become mature they 
are cast off gradually from the distal end of the parasite as 
new segments develop from the head. Each of the segments 
contain numerous eggs (ova) which pass out with the feces. 
Before becoming detached the segments can also liberate ova 
through an opening on the lateral wall or ventral surface, 
called the genital pore, forming two ways of disseminating 
the ova. When deposited in a suitable medium, preferably 
warm, moist soil, or filth, the ova undergo a series of compli- 
cated changes which finally result in the first larval form. In 
this form they are ingested by the intermediate host, most 
commonly with the food or water. They burrow through the 
intestinal walls and migrate into the adjacent tissues, or with 
the blood stream are carried to remote parts where they 
develop into cysts. During the development of the cyst in 
the various organs serious conditions, such as " gid' ' in sheep, 
echinococcus disease of man, etc., may arise in the new host. 
As the dog is the harborer of the parent taenia, treatment 
should be given not only to reduce the disorders they occasion 
in other hosts but also to lessen the injury they produce in the 
dog. The cyst form is the limit of development in the inter- 
mediate host. The life cycle can be completed only in case 
the cyst is ingested by and reaches the digestive tract of 
another host in which it can develop. Dogs harboring the 
adult taenia cannot become reinfested by ingesting the larval 
form, but the larval form may migrate from the intestines 



TJENIASIS 195 

into adjacent tissues and there develop new cysts. This is 
the Hmit of their growth, however, in the host of the adult 
worm. 

Tsenise in Dogs.— The most common tsenise found in the 
dog are as follows : (a) Dipylidium caninum ( ToBnia cucum- 
erina), a w^orm 30 to 40 cm. and 3 mm. at its greatest 
breadth. Its club-shaped head is provided with four 
suckers and four rows of very small hooks. The neck is 
long and narrow. The first segments are narrow, the others 
are longer than they are wide and like melon seeds in form 
(cucumis). Genital pore double and opening toward the 
middle of each side of the segments on a slight prominence. 
Ova are globular, from 37 to 46 microns in diameter, and 
pass from the segments massed in a small group enclosed by 
a capsule (cocoon) . The cyst form is the Cryptocystis tricho- 
dectis and the intermediate hosts are the dog flea (Cteno- 
cephalus canis), dog louse (Trichodectis canis) and the flea 
that lives on man (Pulex irritans) . These intermediate hosts 
become infested by ingesting the ova of the taeniae which are 
always present on the skin or hair of the dog by having fecal 
discharge mixed with the bedding in the kennel. The cysts 
develop usually in the abdominal cavity of the intermediate 
hosts which are in turn swallowed by the dog with water and 
food, or while licking or biting the skin to relieve the irrita- 
tion which they produce. They then attach themselves to 
the walls of the intestine where they develop into the adult 
worm. 

(h) Tosnia pisiformis {Tosnia ^errato).— This parasite is 
about 1 meter long, head a little broader than the neck, and 
armed with 24 to 38 hooks. Segments at first are much 
shorter than broad, about square in the middle portion while 
the mature segments are 10 to 17 mm. long by 4 to 6 mm. 
broad. Genital pore on the lateral border, and very promi- 
nent, causing the border to appear convex and the segment 
to be wider in the middle than at the ends. Posterior borders 
straight and the angles uneven which gives the strobila a 
saw-like appearance. Eggs are ovoid and 30 to 40 microns 
long and 31 to 3() microns broad. The cyst form is the Gys- 
ticercus pisiformis and is frequent in the j^eritoncal cuNity 



196 PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 

of hares and rabbits. Dogs become infested by eating the 
viscera and in twelve days the tsenise are 2 to 3 cm. long, and 
matured in two months. The ripe ova given to rabbits 
become cysticerci. 

(c) Toenia hydatigena {Toenia marginata). — This is the 
largest taenia found in the dog, being 1.5 to 2.0 m. long. 
The head is scarcely wider than the neck and has 30 to 44 
hooks. The segments are nearly square with the genital pore 
on the lateral border which begins to develop in the seg- 
ments about one-fourth of the distance from the head. The 
posterior border of the segments is slightly wavy, and 
received into the succeeding segment. Mature segments 
when detached are about 15 mm. long by 7 mm. wide. The 
ova are almost spherical and from 30 to 36 microns in 
diameter. The cyst form is the Cysticercus tenuicollis and 
is commonly found in the peritoneum, pleura and even in the 
pericardium of domesticated animals, especially ruminants. 
It requires four to ^ve months to fully develop into the mature 
w^orm. 

(d) Multiceps multiceps {Toeyiia coeniirus). — This worm 
rarely exceeds 1 m. in length. Head small, slightly broader 
than the neck and armed with 22 to 32 hooks. Segments 
narrower than any of the preceding species, becoming square 
with the genital pore developed about the 125th segment, 15 
to 20 cm. from the head. Mature segments 10 to 12 m. 
long, 3 to 4 m. wide. Eggs spherical 31 to 36 microns in 
diameter. The cystic form is the Multiceps multiceps 
(Coenurus cerebralis) which is developed in the cerebro- 
spinal cavity of sheep; more rarely in other domesticated 
animals, causing the disease commonly called "gid." The 
cyst is polycephalic, the ingestion of one cyst producing 
numerous taeniae. The taenia requires about two to three 
months to reach maturity. 

{e) Multiceps serialis {Tcenia serialis).— This parasite is 
45 to 75 cm. long, head wider than the neck and having 
26 to 32 hooks. Segments similar to those of the JNI. multi- 
ceps. The ripe segments are 10 to 16 mm. long and 3 to 4 
mm. wide, the posterior border being straight. Eggs ovoid 
and 34 microns long and 27 microns wide. The cyst form is 



TMNIASIS 197 

the Multiceps serialis and its intermediate hosts are some 
of the rodents and warren rabbits. This taenia develops 
more rapidly than the others requiring but a few weeks. 

(/) Echinococcus granulosus (Toenia echinococcus) . — This 
species is distinguished from all others by its size. It is only 
4 to 5 mm. long, and composed of 3 to 4 segments, the last 
of which contains the mature ova. The head is armed w^ith 
a double row of 28 to 50 hooks. Eggs ovoid, 34 by 25 
microns. The cyst form is the Echinococcus granulosus 
(E. polymorphus) and is found in most of the organs of the 
herbivora and even man, but is more common in the liver 
and lungs of ruminants and pigs. It requires one month to 
fully develop. This cyst is polycephalic and polysomatic. 

Tsenise in the Intestine of the Cat.— Three species of 
tsenise have been found in the cat. 

(a) Tcenia tceniceformis {Toenia crassicollis).— This is the 
most common taenia found in the cat. It attains a length 
of 15 to 50 cm. and in appearance is similar to those found 
in the dog. The head is armed with a double crown of 26 
to 52 hooks and is about as wide as the neck. The posterior 
segments are 8 to 10 mm. long and 5 to 6 mm. wide. Ova are 
globular and 31 to 37 mm. in diameter. This taenia is repre- 
sented in the vesicular or bladder form by the Cysticercus 
fasciolaris which inhabits the liver of rats, mice and other 
rodents. This cysticercus, which is always coiled up in a 
cyst it has itself produced, is elongated in form, the body 
composed of segments, and from 3 to 20 cm. long, while the 
vesicle is ovoid and frequently no larger than a pea. 

(b) ToBuia elliptica and (c) Tcenia pseudo-elliptica have 
been described as a variety of the Dipylidium caninum of 
dogs; they are unimportant. 

{d) The Bothriocephalus felis has also been mentioned. 
Little is known about it and no disturbance in the cat has 
been ascribed to its presence. 

Taeniae in the Intestine of Rabbits.— Cestodes are rare in 
these animals and all belong to one species, the Cittotienia 
denticulata (Moniezia denticulata). These may attain the 
length of 8 cm., head small and supplied with suckers. Seg- 
ments 1 cm. broad and not so long. Two genital pores are 



198 PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 

in the posterior part of the segment. The cyst form and 
intermediate hosts are unknown. 

Taemse in the Intestines of Birds.— In the intestines of the 
fowl, nine species of cestodes have been found— eight taenia 
and one bothriocephalus. The tsenise are difficult to distin- 
guish from one another, and as they are rare, little work has 
been done to establish their complete history. Outbreaks do 
occur, however, in which so many fowls are infested as to 
amount to an epizootic tseniasis. 

(a) Choanoicenia infundibuliformis, length 20 to 130 mm., 
armed and supplied with suckers. Intermediate host said to 
be the common house fly. 

(b) Dicranotoenia sphenoides, length 2 mm., head armed 
and supplied with suckers. Intermediate host the earth- 
worm. 

(c) Davainea proglottina, length 1.0-1.5 mm., head armed, 
and supplied with suckers. The segments of this tsenia are 
cast off as soon as mature. They continue to live and develop, 
greatly increasing in length. Intermediate hosts are various 
species of mollusca. 

(d) Davainea cesticillus, length 9 to 45 mm., head unarmed. 
Intermediate host unknown. 

{e) Davainea echinobothrida, length 50 to 100 mm., head 
has suckers and is armed. Intermediate host unknown. 

(/) Davainea tetragona, length 25-100 mm., head has 
suckers and armed. Intermediate host unknown. Very little 
is known of the other species. 

ig) Tcenia cantaniani, the only tsenia found in turkeys. 
It is 14 mm. long, head unarmed, but provided with suckers, 
and has no neck. Life history unknown. 

(h) Davainea crassula very rarely infests pigeons. Length 
30 to 40 cm., breadth 4 mm., head armed with double crown 
of 60 hooks. First segment short, posterior ones long, genital 
pores unilateral. Ova very large, ovoid, 28 microns long, 
and arranged in groups. 

Pathology.— Tseni^e are extremely frequent in dogs, but the 
various species are not equally distributed, and the variation 
seems to pertain to different countries and also to the differ- 
ent sections of the country. The frequency of tsenia is also 



T^NIASIS 199 

directly related to that of the cystic or bladder worms 
infesting ruminants, rabbits, and other intermediate hosts. 
The number of individuals by which each of these tsenise 
may be represented in the same dog is also variable. The 
Dipylidium caninum varies up to 360, the T. pisiformis as 
high as 64, the T. hydatigena and the M. multiceps usually 
less than 10, but the Echinococcus granulosus from one to 
several thousand. This variation is due in part to the fact 
that some cyst forms give rise to but one adult parasite 
(monocephalic), while others produce many (polycephalic). 
The common location of the tsenia is in the small intestine; 
only occasionally does it migrate to other parts of the diges- 
tive canal. The head is attached to the mucosa by suckers or 
hooks, and as the body may be folded on itself many times 
long parasites may only occupy a short distance of the bowel. 
Large numbers are often massed together almost completely 
occluding the lumen of the bowel. The mucosa is hyperemic, 
thickened and covered with mucus. Some of the glands are ' 
hypertrophied. Rare cases of perforation of the walls by 
tsenise have been reported, but as a rule the pathological 
changes are those of a chronic enteritis. 

Symptoms.— Notwithstanding their extreme frequency, the 
taeniae often have no apparent influence on the health of the 
dog. Sometimes, however, by their accumulation and intes- 
tinal obstruction, they cause abdominal pain or a chronic 
enteritis. The appetite is often irregular, but while the 
patient may eat well its condition remains bad. Growth is 
checked, emaciation often develops, and the hair coat loses 
its normal luster. Young dogs are uneasy, change their 
position frequently and show a desire to bite the skin over 
the abdomen. They may have epileptiform attacks, which 
are periodical, with normal intervals between. When fre- 
quent, these attacks may be followed by a gradual sinking 
and death. 

The Taenia taeniaeformis of cats is frequently found in large 
numbers in the small intestines and occasions serious dis- 
ease. The appetite gradually declines. A slight diarrhea is an 
early symptom followed by constipation; salivation is abun- 
dant; great prostration; nervous phenomena as loss of sight 



200 PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 

and hearing, and epileptiform convulsions wliich occur at 
intervals. 

Rabbits exhibit symptoms similar to the cat, except the 
former usually have a partial posterior paralysis instead of 
convulsions. 

Chickens lose their appetite, become emaciated, are dull 
and feeble and a few show diarrhea. The presence of seg- 
ments on the surface of the feces is often the only symptom 
of tseniasis. 

Diagnosis.— The poor or emaciated condition of the animal, 
diarrhea or constipation, would indicate the presence of 
intestinal parasites, but an accurate diagnosis of tseniasis 
can only be made by finding the segments or ova mixed with 
the feces. The ova can only be detected by the microscope. 
A microscopic examination is readily made by shaking some 
of the feces in a test-tube, one-half full of water, until the 
mass is broken up. Allow it to stand for a few minutes, and 
with a pipette withdraw a quantity from the center of the 
fluid. Place a few drops on a slide, cover with a cover-glass, 
and examine first with low, then with high power. The 
ova of the tseniadse all appear about the same size. While 
the variations peculiar to each species make differentiation 
possible, it is unnecessary to consider them as the prognosis 
and treatment are similar for all the species. For an accurate 
diagnosis of the species, the entire parasite, especially the 
head, must be obtained and examined microscopically. 

Should the feces be soft or liquid, smear slides can be made 
and examined with as good results. A negative opinion 
should not be given without examining several slides. 
Usually, however, one finds 20 or 30 ova on a single slide. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in mild infestations, but when large 
numbers are present chronic catarrh, or death from obstruc- 
tion is always probable. 

Treatment.— As tsenise, even in mild infestations, incon- 
venience the host more or less, it is advisable to treat them. 
A further reason is the possible infestation of man and herbiv- 
orous animals with the cyst form. Hogs, sheep, cattle, show 
and hunting dogs not only improve in condition when the 
tsenise are removed, but the further propagation of tseniasis 
is corresponding!}' reduced. 



NEMATODA 201 

The administration of a tseniafuge should be preceded by a 
purgative and a twenty-four hour fast. Many preparations 
have been employed with good results, but male fern is 
probably one of the most reliable. The oleoresin (small dogs, 
0.5-1.0; large dogs, 2.0-5.0; cats, 0.2-0.5) may be used. An 
excellent mode of administration is to mix it with a dose of 
castor oil. The purgative action of the oil assists in the 
evacuation of the parasites. Kamala (dogs, 3.0-10.0; cats, 
1.0-4.0) is good; it also produces a purgative action. Areca 
nut powder is often used and is given in doses of two grains 
per pound weight of the animal. It may be given with 
soup, ordinary food or milk, after the bowels have been 
emptied by a purgative. Areca nut powder may be repeated 
in a few days. Rabbits may be given kamala (0.5-1.0) in 
the feed. Birds are best treated for tseniasis by mixing areca 
nut powder (chickens, 2.0; geese, 4.0; young chickens, 1.0) 
with the feed. Oil of anise is also good, and can be adminis- 
tered in 0.9-1.0 doses to adult birds. 

NEMATODA. 

Round "WoTms.—AscaridcB.—^ound worms are quite com- 
mon in dogs and cats, especially in puppies and kittens two 
or three months old. Fully 50 per cent, are infested. In one 
animal ten to thirty parasites are usually present; eighty were 
found in one subject. 

Round worms do not require an intermediate host to com- 
plete their life cycle as do the taeniae. The ova deposited by 
the adult worm with the feces are passed out, and in warm, 
damp ground or in other suitable places undergo certain 
changes, leading to the formation of embryos. Such changes 
may occupy a few days to several weeks, depending upon 
the conditions of moisture and temperature. The embryos 
when ingested by their particular host, rapidly develop into 
the adult parasite. Puppies and kittens become infested 
as soon as they begin nursing, provided these parasites are 
present in the mother or other animals in the kennel. The 
adult worms pass continuously a large number of ova, and 
embryos are present in infested soil which adhere to the 



202 PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 

mammary glands and are swallowed by the young while 
nursing. Birds are less commonly affected with round worms, 
and as a rule they harbor only a few specimens. Occasionally, 
however, round worms are found in birds in large numbers, 
especially in certain localities where this form of parasitism 
may be enzootic. Pigeons are the common victims; in some 
cases whole flocks succumb to the infestation. 

Round Worms in the Intestine of the "Dog.—Belascaris 
marginata.— This species is similar to the B. mystax of the 
cat, and is somewhat larger. The body is white or reddish, 
head usually curved and provided with two membranous 
lateral wings, which cause it to look like an arrow head. 
Male 5 to 10 cm. long, tail curved. Female slightly longer, 
tail obtuse. Ova almost globular and 75 to 80 microns in 
diameter. Capsule thick and showing circular striations; 
granular center with small clear space between it and the 
capsule 

Toxascaris limhata {T. marginata).— This parasite is simi- 
lar to the above; found in intestinal tract of dogs; rare in 
United States. 

Echinorhynchus ca?i25.— Occasionally found in the dog in 
certain districts (Texas) . 

Round Worms in the Intestine of the Ca.t—Belascaris 
mystax.— This round worm is slightly smaller than the B. 
marginata of the dog, the male being 4 to 6 cm., the female 
4 to 10 cm. long. Ova slightly smaller than B. marginata, 
60 to 75 microns in diameter. Similar to B. marginata only 
smaller. 

Round Worms in the Intestine of the Ra^ihit.-Oxyuris 
ambigua {Passolunis amhigns). — This is a white fusiform 
worm, male 3 to 5 mm. long, female 8 to 11 mm. The body 
of both sexes terminates in a suddenly tapering tail, 0.22 mm. 
in length. It infests the large intestine and cecum. It is not 
so common as the round worm of the dog and cat, nor does 
it occur in as large numbers. Ova globular and very small, 
with thick capsule similar to B. marginata. 

Round Worms in the Intestine of Biids.-Heterakidce.— 
(a) Heterakis papillosa {Heterakis vesicular is) .—This is a 
common species infesting chickens, and occasionallv ducks. 



NEMATODA 203 

Male is 8 to 9 mm., female 11 to 15 mm. long. Mouth sur- 
rounded by three distinct lips. The body is gradually attenu- 
ated toward the posterior part, and has two unequal spicules. 
This parasite is found exclusively in the caeca and occasion- 
ally in large numbers. Ova are elongated, capsule with full 
granular center. 

(6) Heterakis differens.— This species is slightly larger than 
the Heterakis papillosa attaining a length of 15 to 20 mm. 
The mouth has no apparent lips. Has two spicules of equal 
length and the posterior extremity of the female terminates 
in a sharp point. It is usually found in the posterior part of 
the intestine of chickens. Ova similar to H. papillosa. 

(c) Heterakis inflexa {Heterakis perspicillum) .—This is not 
very common, and when present is found in the small intes- 
tines. In length and appearance it is similar to the H. 
differens. The host is the ordinary fowl. 

(d) Heterakis compressa is similar to above; occasionally 
found in the small intestines of chickens. 

(e) Heterakis muculosa.— This is the common parasite of 
pigeons and often occurs in such large numbers as to prevent 
their being reared, 400 to 500 are sometimes found in an 
individual. The body is white and attenuated at both ends. 
Male is 20-25 mm.; female 20-25 mm. long. 

(/) Heterakis cra^^a.— This parasite is common in the 
duck. The male is 12 to 15 mm. long and the female 40 to 
50 mm. Tail is thin, conical, and straight. 

(g) Heterakis /meato.— Heterakis lineata is rare; found in 
the intestine of the domesticated duck. Its length is from 6 
to 10 cm. 

{h) Heterakis dispar.— This species found in small intes- 
tine of geese is closely related and similar to the H. papillosa. 
Mouth has three very small lobes. Two lateral wings on the 
neck becoming narrower toward the tail. Male 12 to 18 mm., 
female 16 to 23 mm. long. This parasite is not very common. 

Pathology.— Young animals which have died from the dis- 
order caused by the ascarides, show on autopsy large numbers 
of this parasite which almost occlude the lumen of the bowel. 
The stomach may also contain many of them. They are 
found scattered along the intestines or coiled up in masses. 



204 PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 

The mucous membrane shows a severe enteritis with numer- 
ous ecchymoses and many small ulcerations. The intestines 
contain no food, only a slimy mucus in which are found the 
parasites. In older dogs the parasites are fewer in number 
and are found scattered along the entire length of the intes- 
tine and rarely cause much change in the mucosa. 

Symptoms.— Puppies and kittens when infested show 
symptoms of inanition at three to five weeks of age. They 
are stupid and do not play as such animals usually do at this 
age. Vomiting is common and quite often some of the para- 
sites are thus expelled. Emaciation increases, the mucous 
membranes are anemic, and the abdomen appears enlarged 
("pot bellied"). Diarrhea is not uncommon, often alternat- 
ing with constipation. Quite frequently the patients, espe- 
cially kittens, show epileptiform or rabiform symptoms. 
These are probably due to the irritation of the nervous system 
produced by toxins excreted by the parasites as well as by 
the irritation of the intestines they produce. These symp- 
toms gradually become more severe, and finally food is 
refused, followed by weakness, coma and death in five to 
eight weeks. The temperature is only slightly elevated in 
the early stages, later as coma comes on it is subnormal. 

In mild cases or in older dogs the symptoms are less 
intensive, and often unnoticed. The appetite remains good, 
often voracious, but the general condition is not the best; 
the hair coat dull and rough and the growth impaired. 
Young birds infested with round worms show diarrhea, 
emaciation and depression, finally resulting in death. In 
older birds the condition becomes chronic with marked ema- 
ciation. 

Diagnosis. — This can only be positively made by finding 
the ova in the feces or the parasites in the feces or vomitus; or 
on postmortem examination. (See Diagnosis of Tseniasis.) 
The general s\Tiiptoms are similar to those of tseniasis. 
Ascariasis is, however, more common in very young animals 
which have had no meat. When several animals or birds are 
affected one or more of the typical cases should be killed 
and a careful autopsy made. 



NEMATODA 205 

Prognosis.— Severe infestation in young animals is very 
unfavorable. Ascariasis causes greater loss among puppies 
and kittens than any other disease. Entire litters often 
succumb at four to eight weeks of age^ and in some kennels 
it is almost impossible to rear young animals due to this 
parasite. Chicks and young birds usually succumb; while 
older birds do not die, they grow emaciated and droopy and 
become an easy prey for other diseases. 

Treatment.— ilfgc^^ca/.— It is advisable to administer a 
vermicide to all puppies and kittens when three to five 
weeks of age, and repeat every two to four weeks until several 
months old. Treatnient should be given as soon as symp- 
toms appear. Santonin (puppies, 0.016; small dogs, 0.05-0.2; 
large dogs, 0.2-0.5; kittens, 0.008-0.025; cats, 0.06-0.2) is the 
most efficient agent used to remove the ascaridse. It is best 
administered in small doses, repeated for three or four days, 
than in a single, large dose. This is especially true for all 
young animals, as they are very susceptible to the toxic 
action of this drug. Older animals are rarely affected even 
with enormous doses. Santonin may be administered in 
castor oil in sufficient amount to produce catharsis, or the 
oil may be given an hour or two later. Tablets of santonin 
and calomel of various proportions may be had and are 
convenient to use with the food. Other anthelmintics are 
employed with good results, such as areca nut powder (dogs, 
0.5-4.0; cats, O.L-2.0) which is easily given with milk; ben- 
zine (1.0-7.0 in oil) ; kamala (2.0-8.0). Birds may be treated 
with areca nut powder (chickens 3.0, pigeons 1.0 each), 
mixed with moist ground feed. Oil of anise (0.4-0.8) or 
benzine (0.2-0.6) in castor oil has been used with good 
results. 

Prevention.— In order to rear young animals free from 
these parasites energetic measures must be directed toward 
the removal of all ascaridiie from the older animals and a 
thorough disinfection of all the premises to which they have 
access. This is best done in the early winter, tlic weather 
conditions at this time being unfavorable to tlieir develo])- 
ment. Frequent examinations of the feces sliould be made 
and treatment applied when necessary. All additions to 



206 PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 

the kennel or flock should be examined and treated before 
being allowed with the other animals or birds. 

Pregnant animals should be entirely freed of all parasites, 
and thoroughly washed to remove all ova or embryos that 
may be on the hair or skin. Afterward remove to a clean 
place that has not been used for animals for some time w^here 
the mother and young should be kept for several weeks. 
The feed and water, and all receptacles must not be per- 
mitted to be soiled by other animals which harbor parasites. 
In this way it is possible to rear puppies, kittens or birds 
without experiencing the trouble with parasites. 

StrongyUdae. — Hoolivonu. — This species of the nematodes 
inhabits the small intestines, preferring the anterior half, 
and occasionally is found in the stomach. They attach 
themselves to the intestinal walls, wound the mucosa, eat 
the epithelium, and suck the blood. According to present 
evidence they produce a poisonous substance which inhibits 
the coagulation of blood and possibly also injures the host. 
Inasmuch as these parasites frequently move from place 
to place, wounding the mucous membrane in many different 
places, from which hemorrhage continues for some time, a 
severe anemia is soon produced. These continued injuries 
to the mucosa soon result in a severe enteritis with all of 
the symptoms of inanition. 

The adult parasite in the intestine lays numerous eggs 
which are passed out with the fecal material. After a short 
time (eight hours to sevetral days), the period varying accord- 
ing to conditions of heat and moisture, an embryo develops 
in each egg. The embryo soon breaks through the shell. In 
the soil it undergoes a change in two or three days, and 
another in about a week, during which time it also becomes 
larger. This stage is known as the infesting stage. The 
parasite may live in this condition for five months or longer. 
Infestation may occur via the mouth, the embryo being 
taken with the food or drink; also by burrowing through 
the skin or mucous membrane and by following the blood 
stream finally reaching the intestines. In experimental 
cases the worm has been found in the intestines in eight to 
fourteen days after skin infestation. 



NEMATODA 207 

StrongyUdse in the Intestine of the Dog. — (a) Ankylos- 
toma canina (Uncinaria trigonacephala; Dochmius trigona- 
cephahis) .—This parasite is small, being 10 to 15 mm. 
long, the body white, mouth slightly expanded, the ven- 
tral border or jaw terminating in four hook-shaped pro- 
jections arranged in pairs, and usually called lips, by means 
of which the worm attaches itself to the mucous membrane. 
Within the mouth on the median line is a conical tooth-like 
projection, on the summit of which a gland opens. On the 
dorsal border there are in addition, two small straight teeth. 
The tail of the male is expanded, while that of the female 
terminates in a blunt point. The vulva is at the posterior 
third of the body. Ova ovoid, 74 to 84 microns long by 48 
to 54 microns broad. 

(6) Uncinaria stenocephala {Anlylostomum stenocephalum). 
—This species of the strongylidse is smaller than the above 
and less common. Body is thinner than that of the Anky- 
lostomum canina. Head is narrow, buccal capsule having on 
each side of its ventral aspect a sharp bordered "lip," back 
of which is a hook-shaped tooth. The dorsal border has 
no teeth. The male is 6 to 8 mm. long, female 8 to 10 
mm. Ova ovoid, 63 to 67 microns long by 32 to 38 microns 
broad. 

Strongylidse in the Intestine of the CaX.— Anl-ylostomum 
trigonacephalum.—This parasite has been described under 
the name of Dochmius balsami. It is almost, if not, identical 
with the Ankylostoma canina of dogs as described above. 
They often occur in larger numbers in cats, and may 
localize at one particular part of the small intestine. 

Strongylidse in the Intestine of the Rabbit. — (a) Strongy- 
hides longiis.—1h.\s species inhabits the anterior part of the 
small intestines. It is a very small worm, and the mouth 
has no hooks. Eggs are ovoid, 40 microns long and 20 
microns wide. 

(6) Strongylus strigosus.— This is a rare species and inhabits 
the cecum and colon of the rabbit. In rabbits the parasite 
has not been known as yet to produce any serious pathogenic 
conditions. 



208 PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 

Pathology.— On autopsy dogs which have died from ankylo- 
stomiasis show cachexia. In addition the mucous membrane 
of the small intestines and cecum is very much thickened. 
Small hemorrhagic areas are scattered over it, and often so 
extensively as to be visible on the peritoneal surface of the 
intestine. The villi are quintuple their normal size, are 
highly injected and closely packed together. In the rela- 
tively healthy parts are seen a multitude of small hemor- 
rhagic points, and in their centers or vicinity are noted one 
or more of the parasites, often coupled. More parasites are 
found in dogs that have been ill only a short time than in 
those in which the malady is chronic. In the latter only a 
few parasites may be found in the ileum, a circumstance which 
may raise a doubt as to the anemia being due to them. 
Only a small amount of very dark or black fecal material 
will be found in the intestines. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms are those of a severe anemia.. 
At first there is only debility and wasting, although the 
appetite remains good, though at times variable. The 
animals affected appear dull and indifferent, the hair coat 
is rough and staring, and the skin scaly or reddened with 
erj^thematous patches, especially at the stifles and nose. 
The latter is tumefied, cracked, rough and excoriated, with 
a mucopurulent discharge from the nostrils. Attacks of 
epistaxis occur at intervals of a few to several days with a 
loss of two or three ounces of blood. Another important 
symptom is edema of the limbs. It is at first intermittent, 
but finally becomes quite permanent. In the latter stages 
the diarrhea, at first intermittent, becomes continuous, and 
the appetite, which w^as capric'ous, disappears. The animals, 
feeble and emaciated, remain in a lying position, grow coma- 
tose and die sometimes in convulsions. Death takes place in 
from a few months to a year. 

Diagnosis —Ankylostomiasis is easily mistaken for non- 
parasitic anemia. The diagnosis really depends upon the 
finding of the ova or the parasites. When several animals 
in a kennel or pack are afiected, an autopsy will remove all 
doubt as to the nature of the malady. 



NEMATODA 209 

Prognosis.— If, the condition is recognized early and treat- 
ment administered, the prognosis is favorable. In those 
cases showing extreme emaciation and exhaustion the prog- 
nosis is bad. 

Treatment.— Treatment in ankylostomiasis must be 
directed toward the removal of the parasite. The common 
anthelmintics used for intestinal parasites have little or 
no effect on the strongylidse. Thymol (0.06-0.6) is prob- 
ably the best for this species, and good results follow 
its use in daily repeated doses. It is advisable to pre- 
cede the treatment Avith a dose of Epsom salts to free 
the intestines of food and the mucus with which the para- 
sites are usually covered. The object of the treatment is to 
have the finely' pulverized thymol pass, only slightly dis- 
solved, through the entire length of the intestines, and com- 
ing in contact with the parasites, destroy, or so disable them, 
that they may be evacuated. As thymol is very soluble in 
alcohol, fats or oil, and serious results follow its absorption, 
all medicines containing alcohol as well as all fatty foods 
(fat meat, milk, butter, etc.) should be avoided during its 
'use. It must be administered in a capsule thoroughly mixed 
with three times the amount of sugar to prevent the thymol 
collecting in a mass, as it would otherwise do as soon as 
liberated from the capsule and pass through the intestine 
with little or no effect on the parasites. Should absorption 
occur with the production of toxic symptoms, a subcutaneous 
injection of magnesium sulphate (0.3) will often overcome it. 
Nutritious and easily digested food (lean meat, rice soup, 
cooked vegetables) may be given during the treatment after 
which the best of food that the dog will eat should be allowed. 
Stomachic tonics as iron, quinine citrate (0.2-0.3), tincture 
gentian compound (1.0-4.0) are useful to stimulate the 
appetite. These should be continued for some time. In a 
few weeks make another examination for parasites or ova, 
and, if present, repeat the treatment. Thorough disinfection 
of the kennels is important. 

Trichinellidae. — Whipworm. — This parasite lives in the 
cecum and large intestines, and is less common than the 
species described. It is also much slower in development, 
14 



210 PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 

requiring three to four months to produce embryos, which, 
when introduced into the digestive tract, attain complete 
development in two to three months. The trichuris does 
not require an intermediate host; embryonic development 
takes place entirely outside the body and the parasite 
must pass into the digestive canal while still enveloped in 
its shell. This species is often found in animals affected with 
severe anemia, but it does not appear to play other than a 
secondary part in the development of the disease. When 
present in considerable numbers in the cecum, however, it 
may cause a chronic inflammatory condition by its repeated 
injuries to the mucosa. 

The ova differ considerably from those of other intestinal 
parasites, being ovoid, 70 to 80 microns long and 30 to 35 
microns broad, of a distinct yellow color, and have at each 
end a small rounded projection which appears clear under the 
microscope. 

Birds are occasionally infested but the parasite is rarely 
present in large numbers, and the anemia it produces is only 
secondary to the chronic enteritis which results. 

TrichinelUdse in the Intestine of the Dog. — Trichuris 
depressiusculus.— This species is often spoken of as the 
whipworm, owing to the resemblance of the body to a whip. 
It is 45 to 75 mm. long. The anterior half of the body is 
much smaller than the posterior part and the tail is usually 
curved. 

Trichinellide in the Intestine of the Raibhit. — Trichuris 
unguiculatus.— This species is rare and is only occasionally 
found in the large intestine and cecum of the wild rabbit 
and the hare. The male is 3 to 4 cm., the female 3 to 
5 cm. long. 

Trichinellide in the Intestine of Birds. — (a) Trichosomwn 
retusum.—Male 13 mm., female 19 mm. long. Body white 
or yellowish-white, tail blunt. 

(b) Trichosomum annulatuvi.—Wale 15 mm., female 80 
mm. long. Body white and very attenuated at its anterior 
extremity and marked with close annular stripes. 

(c) Trichosomum collar e.— Male 8 to 10 mm., female 9 to 
12 mm. long. 



NEMATODA 211 

(d) Trichosomum tennissimum. — This species has been 
found in pigeons. It is 10 to 18 mm. long. 

{e) Trichosomum brevicolle. — Male 10 to 12 mm., female 
20 to 24 mm. long. This parasite is found occasionally in 
the large intestine of geese. 

Pathology. — These parasites are usually found in the cecum 
and large intestines but rarely in large numbers. In several 
cases of parasitic anemia in which whipworms occur other 
parasites are usually also present. The whipworms are found 
partly coiled up and attached to the mucous membranes 
of the posterior bowel. The mucous membrane is slightly 
thickened and shows small areas of inflammation from the 
injury produced by the parasites. 

Symptoms.— Gradual emaciation and anemia are the prin- 
cipal symptoms. The appetite may be variable, and con- 
stipation and diarrhea alternate. 

General symptoms are rarely noted, unless the infestation 
has been severe when general anemia occurs. Birds are 
more often seriously affected than other animals. 

Diagnosis.— This depends entirely upon finding the para- 
sites or ova in the feces. (See Fecal Examination for Para- 
sites.) 

Prognosis.— Favorable if the condition is recognized, treat- 
ment applied early, and before extreme emaciation occurs. 

Treatment. —Thymol, same as for the strongylidse. 



CHAPTER XI. 
DISEASES OF THE RECTUM AND ANUS. 

Examination.— These parts are quite readily examined in 
all small animals. The anus by inspection and palpation 
for enlargements and abscess formation in the anal glands, 
congenital occlusion in puppies, pseudocoprostasis, inflam- 
mation at the anal opening, foreign bodies and parasites. 

The rectum is best examined as follows: (a) Direct 
palpation. The index finger is inserted as far as possible to 
determine the condition of the mucosa, the presence of 
foreign bodies, parasites, fecal matter, blood, etc. (b) A 
rectal speculum is used to dilate the anus and rectum. By 
using reflected light (mirror) the mucosa can be directly 
examined for inflammations, tumors, parasites, foreign bodies 
etc. (c) Palpation through the abdominal walls will admit 
of an examination of the anterior portion of the rectum. It 
can easily be distinguished from the other tissues, and quite 
readily inspected in this location for fecal accumulations, 
foreign bodies, etc. (d) Laparotomy when performed just 
anterior to the pubis, in the median line of females, and to 
either side of the penis in males, will allow direct inspection 
of the rectum for inflammations, tumors, fecal accumula- 
tions, etc. 

OCCLUSION OF THE RECTUM AND ANUS. 

(a) A congenital occlusion of the rectum and anus has been 
observed quite frequently in puppies. Imperforate anus is 
most common. This condition exists at birth and is the 
result of improper development during fetal life. The rectum 
is formed from the hypoblastic and mesoblastic embryonic 
layers while the anus is developed by the invagination of the 
epiblastic which, as the development progresses, joins the 
rectum by absorption of the intervening septum. Anything 



OCCLUSION OF THE RECTUM AND ANUS 213 

which interferes with the normal development would pro- 
duce imperforate anus. Sometimes the fetal development 
will be interfered with sufficiently to produce occlusion of 
both the rectum and anus. 

(b) An artificial occlusion of the rectum and anus (pseudo- 
coprostasis) occurs occasionally in long haired dogs (poodles), 
birds and cats (angoras) from the hair or feathers becoming 
agglutinated with fecal matter which becomes dry and forms 
a firm film or plaster over the anal opening interfering with 
defecation. Also occasionally foreign bodies (splinters of 
bone, needles, pins, etc.) are found which have successfully 
passed other portions of the alimentary tract only to become 
lodged at or near the anal opening interfering with the pas- 
sage of the feces. 

Symptoms.— The congenital occlusion is seldom observed 
until there is persistent and ineftectual attempts at defeca- 
tion. Puppies w^hen examined carefully will be found to 
have the rectum distended with feces and an absence of an 
anal opening, the skin being pouched out where the anal 
opening should be. However, should the rectum and anus 
both be imperforate the enlargement will be absent. The 
abdomen becomes distended, and they refuse to nurse. 
A careful examination will at once reveal the condition. 
There is more difficulty in recognizing an occlusion of the 
rectum, but by passing a small probe or sound the condition 
can be definitely determined. 

In artificial occlusion (pseudocoprostasis) the principal 
symptom is the persistent attempts at defecation without 
the passage of fecal matter. A careful inspection of the anal 
region will at once reveal a collection of feces and the matted 
hair or feathers. This condition if persistent will produce 
symptoms similar to constipation or obstipation. (See Con- 
stipation.) 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is quite readily established by 
a careful inspection of the parts involved. 

Prognosis.- Favorable, except in congenital deformity of 
the rectum. 

Treatment.— In imperforate anus, an X-shaped incision 
should be made over the point distended by the feces. Care 



214 DISEASES OF THE RECTUM AND ANUS 

should be taken to prevent injuring the sphincter muscle. 
The flaps of skin should be either trimmed off to form a 
circular opening, or stitched back to prevent adhesions taking 
place. The passage of a small sound daily, keeping the edges 
of the wound well lubricated with vaseline, or the direct 
application of silver nitrate every day or two, will prevent 
adhesions. In cases where the rectum is also involved, 
treatment is not to be attempted. 

Artificial occlusion from collections of feces can be removed 
by clipping away the hair or feathers from around the anal 
opening, softening the hardened mass by the use of warm 
water, and administering a purgative or allowing laxative 
foods for a few days. 

When foreign bodies are present, a careful examination 
should be made to determine their size and character. They 
should be removed carefully to prevent laceration of the 
tissues. 

A purgative is advisable, and if the foreign body has led 
to atony of the walls of the lower bowels, small doses of 
strychnin sulphate (0.0005-0.001) should be administered 
daily. 

PROCTITIS. 

Definition.— An acute inflammation of the mucous mem- 
brane of the rectum. 

Etiology.— Proctitis is observed quite commonly in the 
dog and cat and results usually from the same causes that 
produce inflammation of other parts of the alimentary tract. 
Also, it occurs frequently from direct injuries, such as inser- 
tion of the thermometer, careless manipulation T\ith the 
finger, frequent passing of catheters or sounds, or the injec- 
tions of too strong antiseptic solutions or soapy water, etc. 
All of these conditions will produce a more or less severe 
proctitis depending upon the amount of injury done to the 
mucosa. 

Pathology.— The mucous membrane becomes reddened 
and congested, especially at the apex of the folds; hemor- 
rhages and erosions are often observed. Hemorrhages take 
place from the mucous membrane, and occasionally small or 



PROCTITIS 215 

copious quantities are ejected from the rectum. In severe 
forms, due to poisons, infections, etc., the epithehum becomes 
desquamated, and quantities of it will become loosened from 
the submucosa. Further, when due to injuries, the lesions 
are usually confined to the lower part of the rectum, and 
depend upon the extent of injury. 

Symptoms.— Difficult and painful defecation with frequent 
attempts at defecating and only a small quantity of feces 
being passed. The feces are streaked or covered with blood. 
Edema of the mucosa, which can be seen slightly pouching 
out through the anal opening. Direct examination reveals 
the painful, inflamed mucous membrane. Digital examina- 
tion produces severe pain. Through the rectal speculum the 
mucous membrane will be found highly congested, swollen 
and the surface covered with dark, bloody fecal matter. 

Diagnosis.— This is not difficult as a direct examination 
will readily detect the inflammatory condition. 

Prognosis.— Usually favorable when localized in the rectum. 
However, a careful examination should be made of the other 
portions of the digestive tract before a positive prognosis is 
made. It depends also somewhat upon the cause and the 
extent of injury to the mucosa and the adjacent structures. 

Treatment.— The cause should first be found if possible, 
and removed, to prevent further injury and irritation to the 
mucous membrane. 

Rectal injections of mild astringent and antiseptic solutions 
(alum 1-2 per cent., boric acid 2 per cent.) are indicated. 
These should be introduced with a syringe having a blunt, 
well rounded nozzle, and the injection made slowly only a 
small quantity at each time. The fluid should be at or near 
the body temperature to avoid straining. 

Tincture of opium is indicated as an injection when pain 
is severe, to allay irritation and to prevent straining. A 
solution of one part tincture opium to thirty parts water will 
be found useful for this condition. This injection should be 
repeated as often as necessary. 

In some cases it is advisable, where irritants are sus- 
pected of being present, to irrigate the rectum with warm 
water or a bicarbonate of soda solution (2 per cent.). 



216 DISEASES OF THE RECTUM AND ANUS 

HEMORRHOIDS. PILES. 

Definition.— Hemorrhoids are varicose or dilated veins of 
the hemorrhoidal plexus. According to their location the}^ 
are termed external, internal or mixed. External hemor- 
rhoids are located outside the sphincter ani and in the sub- 
cutaneous tissue, while internal hemorrhoids are located 
inside the sphincter muscle and under the mucous membrane. 
The mixed variety consists of both of the above appearing 
at the same time. 

Etiology.— This condition is commonest in old dogs, and 
results most frequently from obstructions to the portal 
circulation, through constipation, congestion of the liver, 
proctitis, enlarged prostate glands, or chronic cardiac dis- 
eases. All of these conditions, from a defective circulation 
to the parts involved, lead to a venous stasis with a resultant 
distention of the veins of the hemorrhoidal plexus. 

Pathology. —The external variety is usually made up 
chiefly of hypertrophied perirectal connective tissue, appear- 
ing as small cutaneous projections, involving the external 
veins, which become distended or rupture, forming a soft 
tumor-like mass. The internal variety consists of mmaerous 
distended vessels, increased connective tissue formation, 
which often show an ulcerating surface, and are sometimes 
found projecting through the anal opening. Hemorrhages 
often take place readily from them, through irritation by the 
passage of fecal material. 

Symptoms.— The act of defecation is usually very painful, 
the feces being covered with blood, or a quantity of blood 
passed following the feces. Sometimes defecation is stopped 
entirely from the severe pain which is induced by it. Pruritus 
is also a prominent symptom, the animal biting or licking the 
parts, or sliding the anus along the floor. Direct inspection 
of the parts reveals the presence of the hemorrhoidal enlarge- 
ments, which appear as bluish-red knots encircling the rec- 
tum. If external, the enlargements will be noticed on ether 
side of the anal opening. Rectal examination is very painful 
(different from rectal polypi, or other neoplasms, which are 
occasionally found in this location). 



PROLAPSE OF THE RECTUM 217 

Diagnosis.— This is usually not difficult, as the parts can 
be readily inspected. 

Prognosis.— When appearing in old animals a complete 
recovery seldom takes place as the causes are difficult to 
eliminate. However, in recent cases, or in younger animals, 
the prognosis is more favorable, as a number of the cases are 
amenable to treatment. 

Treatment.— The early indications in the treatment are to 
regulate the bowels by the use of saline laxatives (magnesium 
sulphate, dog 8.0-12.0), and laxative foods (soups, etc.) to 
overcome constipation. 

Enemas of cold water are also useful to relieve the con- 
gestion and irritation. Zinc oxid ointment will also be found 
valuable for its astringent and lubricating properties. 

Should the internal hemorrhoids protrude into the canal 
or through the anal opening, they should be grasped with 
the forceps, drawn out through the anal opening, and 
ligated (see Prolapse of the Rectum) . In some cases where 
ligation is impracticable, the rectum is dilated with a specu- 
lum and the actual cautery applied, care being taken to 
prevent injuring the adjacent tissues. 

In external hemorrhoids, it is advisable to operate by 
dissecting around them carefully, ligating them firmly at the 
base with sterile silk or linen, removing the ligated portion 
and suturing the skin wound. Should blood clots or abscesses 
form they should be opened and treated with antiseptic 
solutions. 

PROLAPSE OF THE RECTUM. 

Definition.— An eversion of the rectal mucosa, or the entire 
walls of the rectum through the anal opening. 

Etiology.— An eversion of the rectal mucosa is very common 
in the dog and cat, and occurs most often from a local hyper- 
emia just anterior to the anal opening, the resultant swelling 
forcing the mucosa out through the opening. Or it may 
come from straining during constipation, diarrhea, or the 
presence of parasites, or 'foreign bodies in the rectum. Hectal 
prolapse is observed very often in puppies and kittens, due 
in part to straining incident to catarrh of the bowels, presence 



218 DISEASES OF THE RECTUM AND ANUS- 

of parasites, etc., and also in part to a weakness of the 
sphincter muscles or the supporting tissues of the rectum. 

Prolapsus of a part or the entire rectum is also frequently 
observed, due mainly to excessive straining during constipa- 
tion, in diarrhea, enteritis, etc. This is common in old dogs 
from unduly straining during the course of chronic constipa- 
tion, diarrhea, hemorrhoids, urethral stricture, enlarged 
prostate glands, rectal tumors, labor pains, or after the use 
of irritating or hot rectal injections or infusions. Some- 
times these causes not only lead to prolapsus or intussuscep- 
tion of the rectum, but other portions of the bowels may be 
involved, and protrude out through the anal opening. (See 
Intussusception.) 

Symptoms.— Mild cases of eversion of the rectal mucosa 
are hardly noticeable, except when the animal strains, w^hen 
the enlargement becomes visible. In more severe cases, the 
rectal mucosa will appear as a rounded, congested enlarge- 
ment, protruding out through the anal opening. The condi- 
tion of the mucosa will depend greatly upon the length of 
time it has been everted. On close inspection, the mucosa 
mil usually be found to be everted only from one side of the 
rectum, or in rare instances may be the entire mucosa. It 
will be found congested, of dark color, hemorrhagic, the 
external covering desquamated and often hanging in thin 
shreds. Often the surface bleeds when the parts are manipu- 
lated. Necrosis may result from exposure, or from the blood 
supply becoming reduced by the swelling. An eversion of the 
rectum will at once be recognized by the curved, cylinder- 
like bowel w^hich protrudes. Some feces will be passed, and 
will collect around the orifice of the canal. Longer exposure 
(twenty-four to forty-eight hours) will often lead to indura- 
tion, with foci of ulceration, gangrene, beginning as a rule at 
the apex of prolapsed portion. The progressive changes 
which develop will depend very largely upon the length of 
time the bowel remains exposed. 

Diagnosis.— This is not difficult as a close inspection of the 
parts involved will at once reveal the condition. 

Prognosis.— An eversion of the mucosa is always considered 
favorable, recovery taking place promptly. However, if the 



PROLAPSE OF THE RECTUM 219 

causes persist, in some cases the eversion of the mucosa may 
be followed by a prolapsus of the rectum. 

The prognosis in prolapsus of the rectum is usually favor- 
able, unless the bowel becomes necrotic, or complications 
higher up in the bowel take place from infection, etc. There- 
fore, the prognosis depends very largely upon the length of 
time the bowel has been protruded. When treated early and 
before pathological changes have developed in the exposed 
bowel, the prognosis should be considered favorable. 

Treatment.— In the mild cases of everted mucosa, when 
taken early, applications of cold water or astringent solutions, 
such as alum (2-5 per cent.), are usually efhcient in reducing 
the size of prolapsed portion so that it can be returned to its 
proper position. Further application of astringents will 
assist in keeping it in position. Only small quantities of the 
solutions should be employed, o^^ing to the danger of induc- 
ing undue straining. Should this method fail in keeping the 
mucosa in its proper position, it can be grasped with small 
dressing forceps, pulled out gently and cauterized with the 
thermocautery, making two or three longitudinal lines, being 
careful to prevent going through the mucosa. Should the 
prolapsed mucosa show necrosis, it is best to remove it in the 
f ollomng manner : The prolapsed portion should be grasped 
firmly with dressing forceps and drawn out until the normal 
membrane appears; it is held in this position and a double 
suture applied through the base and tied either way around 
the enlargement. The ligature should be applied rather 
firmly to prevent hemorrhage and retraction of the tissues 
which would loosen it. The ligated portion is then removed 
with the scissors. The base is returned to the rectum and 
treated with antiseptic and astringent solutions. 

rrolapsu.s of the rectum is often quite difficult to reduce. 
When taken early, before much swelling has taken place, it 
can usually be pushed back into place, by digital kneading, 
or by the use of a bougie or a well rounded sound. Placing 
the animal in a pendant position with tlie head downward, 
will assist in the replacement. When the parts are in posi- 
tion, it is advisable to resort to some method of retaining 
them in phice for a time, otherwise they are quite liable to be 



220 DISEASES OF THE RECTUM AND ANUS 

thrown out again by the animal straining. A tobacco-pouch 
suture, which is used to constrict the anal opening, is often 
used successfully, making the constriction just sufficient to 
hold the parts in position, and to allow soft or liquid feces to 
be passed. However, as soon as this suture is removed the 
prolapsus often recurs. 

Should these methods fail to replace the prolapsed rectum, 
or hold it in position, laparotomy should be performed (see 
Laparotomy), and the prolapsed bowel returned to its proper 
position by gentle traction. The bowel when returned to 
the cavity should be held in place by suturing same to the 
abdominal wall (ventrofixation) . The sutures should be 
applied carefully so that they only pass through the serous 
and muscular coats of the bowel. Several of these sutures 
should be applied to firmly fix the bowel in position. Laxa- 
tives or laxative foods are indicated to prevent constipation 
and pressure on the posterior bowels. Should the prolapsed 
portion be much swollen, necrotic, or severely inflamed, this 
method is not advisable, as it would act as a foreign body and 
induce severe straining, resulting in a repetition of the former 
condition. Should the prolapsed portion show evidences of 
marked pathological changes, it is advisable to resort to 
amputation, which is done in the following manner: The 
animal is given a general anesthetic, placed on the table in a 
ventral position, and the parts involved thoroughly cleansed 
with an antiseptic solution. The prolapsed bowel is then 
grasped with a bowel clamp, gentle traction used until 
normal tissues appear, and a previously sterilized small 
rubber tube applied close to the anus, to act as a tourniquet. 
A circular incision should be made through the external 
intestinal wall, a short distance posterior to the tourniquet, 
and parallel to the anal margin. Seize the severed external 
tube at the anal margin with small hemostatic forceps, to 
prevent its retraction and draw it out gently to bring its 
serous coat in contact with the serous coat of the internal 
tube. These two surfaces should be sutured using sterilized 
cat-gut, silk or linen, making interrupted sutures the entire 
circumference of the incised portion. Care should be taken 
in inserting these stitches, as they should only pass through 



PARASITES IN THE RECTUM 221 

the serous and muscular coats. When this is completed, the 
outer tube is cut off with the scissors distal but close to the 
row of stitches. The mucous surfaces are then approximated 
with continuous or interrupted sutures, and the stump thor- 
oughly cleansed with antiseptics and returned within the 
anus. 

Should hemorrhage occur during the operation all vessels 
should be ligated, as the persistent hemorrhage interferes 
with the application of the sutures. The after-treatment 
consists in the daily injection of small quantities of antiseptic 
solutions. 

Another successful method of procedure is to insert a sound 
of proper size, depending upon the size of the animal, into the 
lumen of the canal; apply a tourniquet rather firmly around 
the prolapsed portion close to the anal margin to control the 
hemorrhage, and to prevent the wall from retracting. The 
prolapsed portion is then amputated rather close to the 
tourniquet. A continuous suture is applied around the 
margin of the incised portion, the stitches placed close to- 
gether and including enough of the tissues so that the serous 
coats will be brought in apposition. The tourniquet and 
sound are removed and the stump replaced within the anus. 
Antiseptic and astringent solutions should be used for a few 
days. 

PARASITES IN THE RECTUM. 

Parasites in the rectum are not very numerous, although 
one species is found inhabiting the posterior bowels. Other 
species are found quite often in their exit from the intestinal 
tract, especially taeniae, ascarides, etc. 

The parasites inhabiting the rectum belong to the Nema- 
toda family, Oxyuridse. The following are the ones most 
often found : 

(a) Oxyuris vermicularis, found in the dog. The male is 
2 mm. to 3 mm. long, the female 9 mm. to 10 mm., the color 
being white and the body expanded anteriorly. 

(b) Oxyuris comjxir, found in the cat in the small and large 
bowels, also in the rectum. The female is 8 mm. to 15 mm. 
long. Same characteristics as those found in the dog. 



222 DISEASES OF THE RECTUM AND ANUS 

(c) Oxyuris ambigua, found in the rabbit. The male is 
3 mm. to 5 mm. long, and the female 8 mm. to 11 mm. They 
are white fusiform worms the body terminating in a sublated 
or suddenly tapering tail. 

Symptoms.— These parasites, by producing irritation to the 
rectal mucosa, induce severe pruritis, causing the animals to 
bite or lick the anus and often slide along on the floor to 
relieve the intense itching. The parasites are often seen 
projecting from the anal opening, or observed being passed 
with the feces. Aside from the disagreeable symptoms in- 
duced they do not effect much change to the mucosa, and no 
general symptoms are observed. 

Treatment.— Oleaginous or saline infusions injected into 
the rectum with a syringe are usually sufficient to destroy 
them. These injections may be repeated every few days 
until the symptoms disappear. 

NEOPLASMS IN THE RECTUM. 

Tumors of the rectum and around the anal opening are 
occasionally observed, more commonly in dogs than in any of 
the other small animals. The most common tumors found in 
the rectum are adenocarcinomas or .adenomas. Epithe- 
liomas also occur located outside the anus and originating 
from the skin. Occasionally are found fibromas and sarcomas 
originating from the peripr octal connective tissue. 

Symptoms. — The adenomas or adenocarcinomas found on 
the rectal mucosa or margin of the anal opening interfere 
with defecation and cause straining. They usually appear as 
fungus-like growths with ulcerated, bleeding surfaces. Their 
rapid development is characteristic. Epitheliomas occur as 
a wart- or cauliflower-like growth with a rough uneven surface 
situated in the skin around the margin of the anal opening 
and often involving the anus, skin and periproctal connective 
tissue. These vary in size, may appear singly or multiple 
and often. show an ulcerated surface, with a fetid discharge. 
Fibromas are usually quite large and grow from the peri- 
proctal tissue on one side of the anus. They may be two or 
three inches in diameter, and are characterized by their 



SUPPURATION OF THE ANAL GLANDS 223 

slow growth, smooth surface and firm consistency. They 
greatly interfere with defecation. 

Diagnosis.— While an approximate diagnosis may be made 
from the symptoms, the growth and the general appearance 
of enlargement, an accurate diagnosis depends upon the 
microscopical examination. 

Prognosis.— Obviously the prognosis in all malignant 
tumors is unfavorable, because of the danger of recurrence 
and the difficulty of a complete removal. Benign tumors 
when not too extensive take on the other hand a favorable 
prognosis. 

Treatment.— Tumors should be extirpated early. Under 
general anesthesia, and strict antiseptic precautions, they 
should be carefully dissected out, including some of the 
normal tissue to be sure the entire growth is obtained. A 
ligature is applied firmly around the base of them to con- 
trol the hemorrhage, when they may be removed with the 
scissors or knife. Sometimes it is advisable to cauterize the 
base of the tumor with a thermocautery. Other methods of 
procedure in the removal of these growths will depend very 
largely upon the location, size and character of the tumor. 

SUPPURATION OF THE ANAL GLANDS. 

This condition has been observed quite frequently in the 
dog. The anal glands secrete a grayish or brownish material 
of fetid odor and acid reaction, discharged through a circular 
opening on either side of the margin of the anus. In old 
animals the secreting membrane often becomes inflamed or 
irritated from constipation, foreign bodies, infection, etc., 
which changes the character of the secreted material. From 
infection, the secretion becomes purulent and the orificc^^ 
partially or completely closed giving rise to a retention of 
the secretion, and swelling. In some cases an increase of the 
secretion may result causing discharge which collects on the 
margin of the anus or soils the hair around the anal region. 
Sometimes when the orifices become closed, and no outlet 
is left for the escape of the discharge, the skin perforates 
over the enlargement forming an exit for the escape of the 



224 DISEASES OF THE RECTUM AND ANUS ■ 

discharge. Thus a fistulous tract may form. Painful defe- 
cation is noted, or, if the pain is great, severe constipation 
results. There are frequent attempts at defecation, and 
pruritis. Direct examination reveals the presence of a hot, 
sensitive, fluctuating enlargement or there may be a fistula 
present. The discharge is noted when it collects on the hair 
around the anus and tail which it stains, and an offensive 
odor is emitted. 

Diagnosis.— Usually not difficult as a direct examination 
will reveal the condition. 

Treatment. — When the enlargement is present, the contents 
of the sac should be expelled by pressure with the thumb and 
finger. This should be repeated daily for several days in 
case the sac shows a tendency to refill. If necessary to stop 
the discharge, Lugol's solution or tincture of iodin should be 
injected with a hypodermic syringe, enough of either to 
slightly distend the sacs. This treatment can be repeated 
in a few days if necessary. 

Should a fistulous tract be found, it should first be 
thoroughly cleansed with an antiseptic solution (boric acid 
2 per cent.) to remove all of the secretions, etc., then injected 
with Lugol's solution to destroy the secreting membrane. 

This treatment should be repeated every few days until the 
discharge ceases. 



CHAPTER XII. 
DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 

Examination. — The liver is examined by: 

(a) Palpation.— This method is not very satisfactory 
owing to the well protected position of the liver, and the 
thickness of the abdominal muscles over it. However, when 
the liver is much enlarged from acute inflammation, etc., it is 
possible to palpate it through the walls. 

(6) Laparotomy. — When a thorough examination of the 
liver is desired this method is much more satisfactory than 
by palpation. The incision is made just posterior to the 
xiphoid cartilage, same as for gastrotomy, and long enough 
to admit of a thorough examination. The liver should be 
examined for inflammations, atrophy, cirrhosis, foreign 
bodies, abscesses, tumors, injuries, etc. 

ICTERUS. JAUNDICE. 

Definition.— Icterus (jaundice) is a term applied to staining 
of the tissues with bile pigments. It is characterized clini- 
cally by a yellowish or greenish-yellow discoloration of the 
skin, mucous membranes, and the presence of the bile pig- 
ments in the urine. This is not a disease in itself, but merely 
a symptom of a number of conditions, indicative of a disturb- 
ance in the secretion or excretion of bile, which is significant 
of a disease of the liver. 

Etiology.— Icterus evidently results from two general 
conditions: (a) An obstruction at some point in the course 
of the biliary ducts in consequence of which the bile becomes 
absorbed by the lymphatics or the bloodvessels, producing 
icterus by stasis or hepatogenous icterus. This form of 
icterus is very common in the dog and has a number of 
15 



226 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

etiological factors, which are: Catarrhal inflammations of 
the mucous membrane of the stomach and duodenum, the 
inflammation being sufficient in a number of cases to close 
the orifice of the duct by the swelling of the mucosa; foreign 
bodies in the duct producing irritation and swelling; parasites; 
gall-stones; inflammatory conditions of the duct; neoplastic 
formations in the duct; cicatricial stenosis of the duct; 
compression of the duct from without by tumors on or in the 
stomach, intestine, lymph glands or mesentery. Adhesions 
after operations (gastrotomy), fecal accumulations, aneu- 
rysms of the arteries, interference with the outflow of bile by 
torsion of the ducts which sometimes occurs during preg- 
nancy, tumors in the abdomen, etc.; localized inflammatory 
processes in the liver (abscesses), and primary and secondary 
new growths in the liver are further etiological factors. 
Obstruction of the bile ducts causes the bile to be retained 
in the liver, the hepatic cells continue to secrete bile and to 
convert into bile pigments the free hemoglobin brought 
thither. From the resulting accumulation the pressure in the 
smaller biliary capillaries increases causing them to rupture 
into the lymph spaces to be eventually carried through the 
lymph vessels to the general circulation. 

(b) Disturbance in the function of the liver cells, diverting 
the bile from the biliary capillaries to the Ij^nphatics or blood- 
vessels producing icterus by hemolysis or hemohepatogenous 
icterus. This form of icterus occurs most commonly from 
the following: In many infections, such as the different 
types of infectious icterus; distemper (partly obstructive, 
by producing a catarrhal inflammation of the duodenum); 
pyemia; in the different forms of intoxications, poisonings 
by ptomaines, mineral poisons (phosphorus, arsenic, coal-tar 
products, etc.); pernicious anemia; hemoglobinemia; disturb- 
ance of the circulation, such as passive congestion; some nerv- 
ous diseases, whereby the function of the liver is modified. 

Pathology.— Yellow discoloration of all the organs and 
tissues by the bile pigment with the exception of some of the 
nervous and corneal tissue, characterizes the postmortem. 
The discoloration varies from a slight tinge of yellow to a 
deep greenish yellow, depending upon the amount of bile 



ICTERUS— JAUNDICE 227 

pigment deposited. Catarrhal inflammation of the stomach 
and duodenum is often observed, the mucous membrane 
swollen, the bloodvessels congested, and as a rule the mouth 
of the hepatic duct will be found closed from the swelling of 
the mucosa. The duct itself is often found occluded from a 
swelling of its membranes from infection, parasites, foreign 
bodies, gall-stones, etc. The duct is usually partially filled 
with a thick, syrupy, or semisolid mass of bile and mucus. 
The liver is usually found enlarged, and varies in color from 
a diffuse light yellow to yellowish-brown, or the color may be 
irregularly distributed causing a mottled appearance. The 
bowel contents are light gray or slate gray in color, owing to 
the absence of bile, and emit a fetid odor. 

Symptoms.— The early manifestations of icterus depend 
largely upon the underlying causes of which jaundice is 
merely a symptom. x\ll of the tissues and organs, with the 
exception of the nervous, are stained with biliary pigments; 
in very severe cases where infection is the cause the nervous 
system may also be stained. The discoloration is most 
noticeable in the skin and mucous membrane. 

Mucous Membranes and Skin.— Icterus is first manifested 
by a yellowish discoloration of the eye involving the con- 
junctiva and sclera. In very mild cases a slight tinge of 
yellow noticed on the conjunctiva may be the only symptom 
of the condition. As a rule, as the disease progresses the 
other visible mucous membranes will also show the yellowish 
discoloration. In the dog the entire membranes of the 
mouth will be colored yellow. The skin, especially if non- 
pigmented, becomes a characteristic light yellow, or greenish- 
yellow depending upon the amount of bile pigment distribut- 
ed. The discoloration is seen early on the skin of the abdo- 
men, thighs, and ultimately over the entire body. In dark 
skinned animals the condition can also be observed, the skin 
assuming a dark olive green color. The color of the skin may 
assist somewhat in arriving at the possible etiological factor, 
as the discoloration is usually light in the toxic or hemo- 
hepatogenous icterus, while it usually is darkest when the 
ducts are completely obstructed — he])atogen()us icterus. 
The intensity of the external symptoms, therefore, is in pro- 



228 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

portion to the completeness of the obstruction to the ducts 
and to the extent of the rupturing of the bihary capillaries. 
The symptoms develop on the external membranes, as a rule, 
in a few hours, although in some cases of slow development 
three to four days may be required depending upon the degree 
of infection or obstruction of the ducts. 

The Urine.— This is changed in color to a yellowish-green, 
dark green, yellowish-red, or greenish-brown, depending 
upon the amounts of bilirubin, biliverdin (oxidation prod- 
ucts), or urobilin (reduction product). These bile pigments 
are often observed in the urine before any discoloration takes 
place in the tissues, therefore the urine furnishes an early 
important symptom. The urine when it comes in contact 
^ith organic matter will stain it the color of bile, or upon 
shaking or agitating the urine it will form a foamy liquid, 
which is quite characteristic. Gmelin's test may also be 
used for recognition of icteric urine. In addition to the bile 
pigments the urine often contains a number of hyaline casts 
(indicating nephritis) and desquamated epithelial cells. 

G astro-intestinal Tract.— The absence of bile from the 
intestinal tract results in most cases in the passage of pale, 
grayish, clay colored, or slate gray feces, having a fetid odor, 
and containing undigested fat, and hydrobilirubin. The 
pale color is due partly to the absence of bile, and partly to 
the imperfectly digested fat which may be increased from the 
normal 20 to 50 per cent. The fetid odor of the feces is 
ascribed to the absence of bile which when present limits 
fermentation of the intestinal contents. Constipation is 
the rule in the majority of cases. However, diarrhea may be 
present in some cases due to the imperfect digestion of the 
fats and to the laxative action of free fatty acids which are 
formed. The constipation is due no doubt, when present, to 
defective motility of the muscular walls of the bowels, from 
lack of the normal stimulating properties of the bile. In- 
creased acidity of the stomach is observed in many cases, the 
obstruction to the flow of bile apparently causing an increase 
in the activity of the gastric secretion. 

Xervoiis System. Serious nervous symptoms are often 
observed. The bile salts present in the circulation are at 



ICTER US— J A UN DICE 229 

once carried to the nervous system, and, when accumulated 
in sufficient quantities, will produce by irritation of the nerve 
cells marked 'Symptoms of active delirium, convulsions, etc. 
This period of excitement and delirium, as a rule, lasts only 
a very short time, terminating in depression, muscular de- 
bility, somnolence, and eventually deep coma and death from 
a general paralysis. 

The general symptoms (loss of appetite, increased thirst) 
are noticeable from the beginning. Usually a subnormal 
temperature (96-100° F.) exists, depending upon the severity 
of the condition. Examination of the liver by palpation is 
unsatisfactory, as pain or enlargement of the liver is rarely 
noted. . 

Diagnosis —The recognition of this condition offers no 
difficulties, as the symptoms are very characteristic. How- 
ever, the cause in many cases is hard to determine. In dogs 
digestive disturbances, often resulting from errors in diet, 
etc., produce the largest percentage of cases. Here the 
anamnesis is valuable. From infectious jaundice a differen- 
tiation can in most cases be made from the fact that this 
condition occurs mostly in young dogs (puppies) and in an 
enzootic form, affecting all the puppies of a litter. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis in icterus is generally speaking 
unfavorable. A large percentage of the cases in the dog 
terminate fatally. In mild cases, due to catarrhal inflamma- 
tion of the mucous membrane of the duodenum, recovery 
usually takes place. The cause, if possible, should be ascer- 
tained, and the conditions thoroughly considered before 
making a prognosis. 

Treatment.— Z)ie^e^ic.— In the milder cases where the 
appetite is retained small quantities of lean meat should be 
given, avoiding all fats for a few days. In severe cases to 
conserve the animal's strength eggs, given in small quantities 
of milk, are useful. During convalescence foods should be 
allowed only in small quantities, avoiding fats and irritating 
foods as much as possible. 

Medical.— \\hen icterus is the result of catarrhal inflamma- 
tion of the duodenum, it is advisable to irrigate the stomach 
with bicarbonate of soda solution (2 per cent.), repeating this 



230 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

operation until all mucus is dissolved and the liquid flows 
out clear. This treatment should be used at least once or 
twice daily. Following the stomach lavage Carlsbad salts 
(0.5-2.0) are useful to stimulate secretions and to dissolve the 
mucus accumulated on the mucous membrane of the stomach 
and duodenum. In some cases this will be sufficient to allow 
the escape of the bile into the duodenum. 

Injections of warm water or warm bicarbonate of soda 
solution (2 per cent.) into the rectum as high up as possible 
are often valuable to stimulate peristalsis, encourage defeca- 
tion, and to produce alkalinity of the intestinal contents. 

Should constipation be present calomel (dog, 0.3-0.4; cat, 
0.1-0.15) should be given and repeated in twelve to fifteen 
hours if catharsis has not been established. ^Magnesium 
sulphate (dog, 8.0-16.0; cat, 1.0-4.0) or castor oil (dog, 
15.0-16.0; cat, 5.0-20.0) may be used for the same pur- 
pose. 

In severe cases it is advisable to try to overcome the 
obstruction to the duct and empty the gall-bladder, either by 
mechanically compressing the liver by manipulation or by the 
use of emetics. The latter method has proved to be the 
most satisfactory. The action of the emetic by contracting 
the abdominal muscles will often exert enough pressure upon 
the liver and gall-bladder to force the bile out into the bowel. 
An obstruction, such as mucus, parasites, foreign bodies, etc., 
can thus also often be removed. 

^Mien the bile pigments are deposited in the body in large 
quantities, or the blood contains a large amount of unde- 
posited bile salts, its elimination should be encouraged by the 
use of diuretics. Potassium acetate or nitrate (dog, 0.20- 
0.50; cat, 0.05-0.10) is to be given twice daily. 

General stimulants, such as camphor or ether, are indicated 
when general depression and coma are observed. 

In severe cases normal salt solution given as an intravenous 
injection is useful to assist in the elimination of bile and to 
produce general stimulation. 

Faradization of the liver has been tried but its usefulness 
is questionable. 



CONGESTION OF THE LIVER 231 



CONGESTION OF THE LIVER. 

Two forms of this disease are distinguished: (a) Active, 
and (6) passive. 

Active Congestion.— Definition.— An engorgement of the 
Hver with blood resulting from an increased circulation 
through the portal vein or hepatic artery. 

Etiology. —There are a number of etiological factors in 
active congestion of the liver : (a) During the process of 
digestion there is a physiological increase in the amount of 
blood carried to the liver by the portal vein. This, however, 
usually subsides after digestion is completed. In small 
animals, owing to the great variation in the amount and 
quality of food taken, and the fact that the food often 
contains irritating material, toxins, ptomaines, etc., all of 
which increase the functional activity of the liver, a more 
or less permanent active congestion results. (6) Various 
poisons provoke a severe form of congestion of the liver. 
These include many autogenic poisons carried to the liver 
from the intestinal tract by the portal vein, or certain 
ptomaines preformed in the food before it is ingested. Min- 
eral poisons (arsenic, mercury, phosphorus) can produce it. 
Some of the toxic products of infections, which develop in 
the intestinal tract, will sometimes be carried to the liver in 
sufficient quantities to excite an acute congestion, (c) Con- 
gestion of the liver may also result from the specific products 
of certain infections (virus of distemper, staphylococci and 
streptococci) that may reach the liver via the general circula- 
tion, (d) Dogs, when kept indoors, fed on highly nutritious 
food, and not receiving the proper amount of exercise, will 
often develop active congestion of the liver. 

Many of the causes mentioned are also the chief etiological 
factors in producing inflammation of the liver (hepatitis) 
of which congestion is the first stage. 

Pathology. —The liver is enlarged, feels firm or hard, 
contains an increased amount of blood, and is of a dark red 
or reddish-brown color. On cut surface, the blood drips or 
flows off freely. 



232 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

Symptoms.— Due to the fact that excretion is interfered 
with, which leads to a general intoxication of the body, 
general symptoms of stupidity, depression, loss of appetite, 
etc., appear. Nausea and vomiting are often observed. 
Constipation is the rule. The feces are clay colored and have 
a fetid odor. Jaundice, which is nearly always present, is 
first noticed in the conjunctiva; the urine is stained yellow 
with bile pigment. The liver is usually enlarged and by 
palpation it may be distinguished through the abdominal 
walls; also is often quite painful to the animal when com- 
pressed by digital pressure. 

The urine is highly colored (often green), of high specific 
gravity, and shows precipitates of urates and uric acid. The 
body temperature is either normal or subnormal. 

Diagnosis.— An accurate diagnosis presents some difficul- 
ties. The causes (history), the disturbance of the digestive 
tract, the jaundice, and the enlarged and painful liver, should 
be considered in arriving at a definite conclusion. In atypical 
cases an accurate diagnosis is impossible, although enough 
symptoms may develop to suspect the acute congestion. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is usually favorable, except in 
those cases produced by poisons and infections. In these 
the prognosis will depend largely upon the character of the 
infection or the nature and amount of the poison. 

Course.— In most cases the course is short, rarely lasting 
over two to four days. 

Treatment.— Die^e/ic— All irritating food should be with- 
held. The diet should consist almost entirely of milk given 
only in small quantities with long intervals between meals. 
Lime water added to the milk, to make it alkaline, will have a 
beneficial action on the mucosa of the stomach and intestines. 

Medical.— Yvee purgation is indicated early. Magnesium 
sulphate (dog, 10.0-15.0; cat, 1.0-5.0) has proved to be the 
most satisfactory. These doses should be repeated until free 
catharsis has been established. Calomel may also be used, 
but is not as good as magnesium sulphate, as its action is 
more cholagogic which would be contraindicated where con- 
gestion of the liver exists. When nausea and vomiting are 
present, indicating an irritated condition of the stomach and 



CONGESTION OF THE LIVER 233 

intestinal mucosa, sodium bicarbonate (dog, 0.5-1.0; cat, 
0.2-0.8) given three to four times daily is beneficial. Am- 
monium chlorid (dog, 0.5-1.2; cat, 0.2-0.5) given three times 
daily will assist in the excretion of the urea, uric acid, etc., 
and relieve the intestinal catarrh. During convalescence 
bitter stomachics are indicated to stimulate secretions and to 
assist in digestion. Intestinal antiseptics, such as salol, are 
also often indicated. 

Passive Congestion.— Definition.— A congestion of the liver 
due to some impediment in the efferent circulation of the 
blood in the liver. 

Etiology.— This condition may result from the following: 
(a) Defective heart action, whether it be acute or chronic, 
such as valvular insufficiencies, (b) During the course of 
some diseases of the lungs which increase the work of the 
right side of the heart, eventually weakening it. Examples 
are emphysema, chronic bronchitis (common in old dogs), 
compression by pleural exudates, adhesive pleuritis, tumors of 
the mediastinum, etc. (c) Local obstructions to the circula- 
tion of blood through the hepatic veins and posterior vena 
cava. The most common are: Pleural or peritoneal effu- 
sions (when in large quantities, displacing the heart or com- 
pressing the veins), tumors of the liver (carcinomas and 
sarcomas in older animals), adhesions around the liver from 
abdominal operations, injuries, etc. 

Pathology.— The congested liver in the early stages is 
somewhat increased in size, depending upon the amount of 
blood contained. The organ is firm, dense and of a bluish 
or dark purple color. 

Cut section shows a more or less uniformly congested, 
dark-blue or purplish color, and presents a mottled appear- 
ance with light areas. In the advanced stages there is an 
excess of blood, and the liver presents the characteristics 
of the "nutmeg" liver; the intralobular and sublobular 
venules being distended and filled with blood, appearing as 
dark blue, purplish or reddish spots, while the liver cells are 
pale yellowish, or whitish, showing fatty infiltration and 
biliary pigmentation, which gives the marked contrast in 
color ("nutmeg" liver). In the most advanced stages, the 



234 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

liver becomes smaller, and may be smaller than normal. It 
is firm and dense, but still retains the characteristic nutmeg 
appearance. Connective tissue develops around the central 
veins; the adjacent hepatic tissue is atrophic and pigmented, 
and invading it are fine fibrous connective tissue trabeculse. 
The capsule is often thickened and opaque. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms vary greatly, depending largely 
upon the causes. When due to primary cardiac or pulmonary 
disease, the symptoms are complicated ^ith these condi- 
tions, those of the primary condition usually predominating. 
The local symptoms are principally loss of appetite, dis- 
turbance in digestion, nausea, vomiting, and more or less 
obstinate constipation. Jaundice is a common symptom. 
It may be moderate. The cyanosis which is present in the 
conjunctiva \dth the jaundice produces a peculiar bluish- 
green color of the mucous membranes. In cases where infec- 
tion develops rapidly, the jaundice increases, often producing 
nervous symptoms such as excitement, convulsions, etc. 

Ascites is a common s}Tnptom in the later stages resulting 
from the extensive interference with the circulation. A large 
amount of fluid is often found in the abdominal ca\ity, 
especially in dogs. In the early stages the liver is enlarged, 
while in the more advanced cases it may be atrophied. 
Examination of the liver, therefore, by palpation may not 
reveal any characteristic condition. An accompaming 
gastro-intestinal catarrh develops which interferes ^dth 
digestion; the chronic course leads to general weakness and 
emaciation. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis depends upon finding the 
primary disease of the heart or lungs, the condition of the 
liver, and the local s^Tnptoms of icterus, gastro-intestinal 
catarrh, etc. An accurate diagnosis is somewhat difficult. 
A careful examination of the patient and the prolonged 
chronic course of the disease \^ill assist in arriving at an 
accurate conclusion. 

Prognosis.— As a rule unfavorable, especially in the dog. 
It depends upon the primary condition, the stage of the 
disease and the condition of the animal. 



HEPATITIS 235 

Treatment.— Dietetic— Tresitment affords only temporary 
relief. Encourage the animal to eat, by giving small amounts 
of lean meat, milk, etc., which may be given in conjunction 
with alkalies (sodium bicarbonate) to conserve the strength. 

Medical.— For defective circulation, due to diminished 
heart action (valvular insufficiency), digitalis fluidextract 
(dog, 0.1-0.3; cat, 0.025-0.05 once or twice daily) is the 
most efficient drug, especially when used in the early stages. 

Magnesium sulphate should be given in constipation. 
Stomachic tonics (gentian, nux vomica) are also indicated. 

HEPATITIS. 

Definition.— An acute or chronic inflammation of the liver. 
This comprises a series of most diverse conditions varying 
from active congestion, acute or chronic inflammation, to 
localized foci of necrosis or to the different forms of icterus 
gravis. 

Etiology.— Hepatitis may result froni the many causes 
enumerated under active congestion of the liver (see Conges- 
tion). The only real difference between the conditions is in 
degree. A clinical differentiation, therefore, may be difficult. 
Acute hepatitis is most commonly due to the absorption of 
toxins during the course of infections or specific infectious 
diseases. It may also result from the absorption of toxic 
materials, such as poisons, from the intestinal tract (common 
in dogs). 

Chronic interstitial hepatitis may develop from the acute 
or from valvular disease of the heart. 

Pathology.— In acute hepatitis the pathological changes are 
varied. The whole phenomena of inflammation (congestion, 
cloudy swelling, focal necrosis, etc.) may be present. In 
mild cases the Hver appears as in active congestion with 
cloudy swelHng. In severe cases the pathological changes 
are intensified. The liver is enlarged, swollen, softened, and 
rather pale in color; the cut surface is pale, opaque, and 
shows mottling depending upon the degree of inflammation. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms are very similar in many res- 
pects to those of active congestion of the liver of which acute 



236 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

hepatitis is a more advanced stage. As a rule the symptoms 
are more intensive than in acute congestion. Xausea and 
vomiting are more pronounced and usually more persistent; 
the vomited material often contains a quantity of bile color- 
ing the material a greenish color. Blood may be vomited 
up along with the other material, from the irritation of the 
mucous membrane. Constipation is nearly always present. 
At certain periods in the course of the disease diarrhea 
may appear. The fecal discharges are very fetid, yellowish 
or clay colored. Icterus, noticeable on the conjunctiva, 
mucous membrane of the mouth, and sometimes in the non- 
pigmented skin, will be a prominent symptom. The liver is 
found enlarged and sensitive on palpation. 

The urine is usually concentrated, highly colored, of 
increased specific gravity, and contains a high percentage 
of urates and uric acid as well as bile pigment. 

The temperature in the early stages of acute hepatitis is 
usually quite materially elevated (103-104° F.). The fever 
temperature assists in differentiating the condition from 
simple congestion. However, in the later stages, the tem- 
perature may be found normal, or even subnormal, due to 
retained toxins, bile salts, etc. The general s\Tiiptoms are 
dullness, intense thirst, and gastro-intestinal disturbance. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis depends on the causes, the 
elevation of temperature, the enlargement and sensitiveness 
of the liver, and the general symptoms. To distinguish 
between acute congestion and inflammation of the liver is 
difficult and depends upon the severity of the symptoms. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable. In some of the 
milder cases recovery takes place, but when advanced it 
nearly always proves fatal. 

Treatment.— The treatment for active congestion of the 
liver is applicable. (See Active Congestion of the Liver.) 

In chronic hepatitis treatment is valueless. 

Suppurative Hepatitis.— ^6^0^55 of the IfiTr.- Definition. 
—An inflammation of the liver resulting in abscess formation, 
which occurs under a variety of circumstances and in several 
forms. Liver abscesses are commonly divided into two kinds : 
(a) The large single abscess; (b) the small multiple abscess. 



HEPATITIS 237 

Fundamentally, however, the two kinds may not differ from 
each other, since the large single abscess may become multiple 
by infecting adjacent liver tissue giving rise to the develop- 
ment of secondary abscesses. By coalescence a number of 
small abscesses may by peripheral extension form a large 
single abscess. 

Etiology. —Liver abscess is always the result of infection 
by microorganisms (staphylococci, streptococci) which reach 
the liver in one of several ways: (a) Traumatism. In 
small animals injuries, direct or indirect, frequently give rise 
to abscess of the liver. Direct injuries, such as punctured 
wounds, gunshot wounds, etc., permit the entrance of 
pyogenic organisms. Indirectly contusions or rupture of 
the liver, which reduce the resistance to infecting organisms 
which may be circulating in the hepatic or portal blood. 
Such usually produces a single, small or medium-sized abscess. 

(6) Diseases of contiguous organs often occasion the forma- 
tion of abscess in the liver. Examples are: Gastric or 
duodenal ulcer with perforation; abdominal organs which 
have been operated and infected, and suppurative conditions 
of adjacent organs. 

(c) Infection via the portal or hepatic circulation. Multi- 
ple abscesses result from gangrene or abscess of the lungs, 
purulent pleuritis, purulent and fetid bronchitis, etc. These 
processes give rise to many infectious emboli which lodge in 
the liver forming abscesses. 

{(l) Infection via the biliary ducts. Here abscess forma- 
tion is due to the infection carried in through the bile ducts, 
or by direct extension of ulcerative and suppurative processes 
in the biliary tract to the adjacent liver tissue. 

{e) In some cases infection may take place through the 
l,ymphatics. 

Pathology.— The appearance of the liver will vary greatly, 
depending upon the mode of infection, the virulence of the 
infecting material, and the location and number of abscesses. 

Abscesses resulting from traumatism, ulcerative and 
suppurative jirocesses in adjacent organs are usually single, 
small or of moderate size, and mostly superficial. These 
abscesses are in isolated areas, a focus of inflammation sur- 



238 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

rounded by a zone of intense hyperemia. In or near the 
center hquefaction necrosis of the exudation begins which 
spreads by peripheral extension until a smaller or larger 
area of softened or fluid purulent material, surrounded by 
a more or less well defined zone of limitation, results. The 
softened material consists of leukocytes, red cells, necrotic 
and degenerated liver tissue, infection, etc. The abscesses 
are very commonly situated near or on the surface of the 
liver. The surface of the liver is, therefore, involved (peri- 
hepatitis), and extensive adhesions may bind to it the 
contiguous organs. In some cases (especially after opera- 
tions) the abscess is on rather than in the liver (suprahepatic, 
infrahepatic) . 

When small, multiple, metastatic abscesses are present, the 
liver is usually enlarged, swollen, opaque, and shows evidence 
of parenchymatous degeneration, or cloudy swelling. On 
section the organ reveals numerous grayish or yellowish, 
softened spots surrounded by hyperemic zones; the spots 
vary considerably in size depending upon the stage of develop- 
ment of the condition. In some cases the numerous small 
abscesses, by peripheral extension, become confluent and 
form a large abscess which may involve a whole lobe or in 
some cases the entire liver. The purulent contents are 
usually thick, creamy, yellowish, or thinner and seropurulent, 
or stained with blood or bile ; the surrounding liver tissue is 
in most cases stained a greenish-yellow tint. The pus often 
has an offensive odor especially when due to gastric or duo- 
denal ulcers. 

Symptoms.— The early manifestations are not very charac- 
teristic. Therefore, unless the condition is well established 
involving a large portion of the liver, or interfering severely 
with its function, it is apt to be overlooked. 

In traumatic abscess, and abscesses due to spread of 
infection from adjacent organs, the patient usually shows 
pain in the region of the liver, especially when the animal is 
handled or moved about. Jaundice, due to compression of 
the biliary ducts, and enlargement of the liver can usually 
be determined by palpation; fluctuation may also be evident. 
In multiple abscess the diagnosis is difficult, as there are 



HEPATITIS 239 

no characteristic s^^mptoms. The temperature is variable, 
usually slightly elevated; chills may be present. Examina- 
tion of the blood often reveals leukocytosis, which is not 
always present, especially in chronic, well encapsulated 
abscesses. The urine is concentrated, highly colored, specific 
gravity increased, with an abundant deposit of urates and 
uric acid. AMien there is much destruction of the liver tissue 
the amount of urea is diminished, and albumin is often 
present. 

Spontaneous rupture of the abscesses often takes place, 
especially in those cases resulting from traumatism, causing 
serious symptoms to suddenly develop. As in most cases 
the rupture occurs into the peritoneal cavity, a generalized 
peritonitis follows which soon leads to death. 

Diagnosis.— An accurate diagnosis is usually quite difficult. 
The most suggestive signs are progressive enlargement and 
tenderness of the liver, jaundice, chills and fever, leukocytosis, 
and the consideration of the etiological factors. 

When an abscess is suspected an accurate diagnosis can 
be made with safety (especially in the dog) by making an 
explorative laparotomy. 

Prognosis.— Abscesses of the liver even in the single supra- 
hepatic form should always be considered unfavorable. 
The small multiple abscesses are almost always fatal, death 
occurring in one to two weeks. 

Treatment.— The early indications in the treatment are 
surgical. Under general anesthesia and strict antiseptic 
precautions, an explorative laparotomy should be per- 
formed. The incision in the abdominal wall should be 
made large enough to admit of a careful and free examination 
of the liver. Should the abscess be suprahepatic, or single 
in the liver substance, that portion of the liver is carefully 
brought out through the incision. It is very important that 
the liver be carefully manipulated to prevent rupturing the 
abscess. Should the abscess be of large size, it is often 
advisable to aspirate most of the contents before it is manipu- 
lated to prevent rupture of the sac and also to facilitate 
its withdrawal through the abdominal incision. When the 
afi'ected portion of the liver is withdrawn, it should be sur- 



240 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

rounded on either side with sterile gauze to prevent any of 
the pus entering the ca\dty while operating. A free incision 
is made directly over the abscess its full length, the contents 
of the cavity thoroughly washed out with boric acid solution 
(2 per cent.) and the abscess wall thoroughly curetted to 
remove all of the necrotic tissue and detritus. If necessary 
some of the tissue is removed with the scissors or knife to 
straighten the edges of the wound, and also to be sure to 
remove all of the necrotic tissue. The wound in the liver is 
sutured with a deep continuous suture.. Should the hemor- 
rhage interfere it should be controlled by ligating the larger 
vessels. 

Should the abscess be suprahepatic or infrahepatic, the 
affected parts should be carefully T\ithdrawn, the adhesions 
broken down and the entire wall of the abscess completely 
extirpated. All exposed portions should be thoroughly 
irrigated before returning to the abdominal ca\ity. 

When multiple abscesses are found surgical treatment is 
rarely of value. The external wound is sutured as in gastrot- 
omy. (See Gastrotomy.) ^ 

ATROPHY OF THE LIVER. 

Definition.— A term generally applied to a reduction in the 
size of the liver. In most conditions where there is a reduc- 
tion in the size of the liver it is due to degenerative changes. 

Etiology.— Atrophy of the liver occurs most commonly 
from the following : 

(a) Pressure upon the liver, by tumors, enlargement of 
adjacent organs, passive congestion, amyloid disease, etc. 
These causes may produce a true atrophic condition of the 
liver ^^-ith subsequent replacement fibrosis, or atrophy and 
degeneration (fatty degeneration and necrosis) as in passive 
congestion and amyloid disease. 

(b) From a stenosis or occlusion of the portal vein, general 
hepatitis, advanced passive congestion, etc., a general 
atrophy of the liver may develop. 

(c) A reduction in the size of the liver, which is not a true 
atrophic condition, follows many degenerative processes, 



FATTY LIVER 241 

such as poisoning by phosphorus, arsenic, mercury, chloro- 
form, etc. 

(d) Reduction in the size of the Hver frequently occurs, to 
which the term atrophy is applicable, in inanition, cachexia, 
etc. In this case the liver participates in the general 
atrophic process. 

Pathology.— The liver is smaller than normal, dark in color, 
dense, of increased specific gravity, and dry. These changes 
are the result of the increase in the connective tissue and the 
decrease in the parenchyma. On cut section the surface is 
dry, and the liver substance very dense and firm. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms are not very characteristic. 
There will be noticed inanition, cachexia, etc. The patient 
shows digestive disturbances, and the feces are light colored. 
The liver is very small; owing to its location it is difficult to 
palpate. 

Diagnosis.— An accurate diagnosis is in most cases impos- 
sible during the life of the animal. The etiological factors 
may assist somewhat in making a diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis should always be considered 
unfavorable, owing to the structural change which- has taken 
place in the liver, and the difficulty of removing the causative 
factors. 

Treatment.— Satisfactory treatment is hardly possible, 
although treatment for the removal of the cause would be 
indicated. 

FATTY LIVER. 

Definition.— A term applied to the excessive amount of fat 
in the liver. It includes fatty infiltration, in which there is 
an excessive deposit of fat without the liver cells becoming 
much altered, and also fatty degeneration, in which the liver 
cells are converted into fat cells. 

Etiology.— The causes are: (a) Feeding of animal for a 
long period on fats and carbohydrates, without the proper 
amount of exercise. This tends to produce obesity (which 
is common in house dogs), of which fatty liver is a common 
symptom. The fatty deposit is probably due to the incom- 
plete oxidation of the excessive amounts of food. (6) Anemia, 
16 



242 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

and cachexia, occurring in the later stages of chronic diseases, 
carcinomatosis and sarcomatosis, general inanition, etc. 
These conditions result in an insufficient supply of blood, 
therefore incomplete oxidation. (c) Passive congestion of 
the liver due to valvular insufficiency of the heart, {d) 
Poisonings, such as phosphorus, arsenic, mercury, etc., which 
are very common in small animals. Ptomaines from meats 
will produce a similar effect, (e) Infections developing 
in the intestinal tract, as distemper, infectious diarrheas, 
etc., the toxins of which are carried to the liver through the 
portal vein. General infection, such as by pyogenic organ- 
isms, will produce the same effect on the liver. 

It is quite evident that the majority of cases of fatty liver 
develop through a deficient oxidation. 

Pathology.— The liver is enlarged, often twice the normal 
size, the specific gravity lessened, and the resistance reduced. 
It is pale yellow in color, or yellowish areas or streaks are 
seen on the surface. The surface is smooth, and the edges 
somewhat rounded. On cross-section it is usually pale, 
anemic, and fat globules which adhere to the knife are often 
noted. In cases of passive congestion the characteristic 
appearance of nutmeg liver is observed (dark center and 
light periphery of the lobules). 

Symptoms.— The symptoms of fatty liver are very obscure, 
and not sufficient in most cases to make an accurate diagnosis 
intra vitam. 

AMYLOID LIVER. 

Definition. — A degenerative process of the liver charac- 
terized by the conversion of the proteins of the tissues into 
a structureless, homogeneous substance called lardacein. 

Etiology.— This condition results most commonly in animals 
from the absorption of the toxins of pyogenic organisms. It 
requires for its production a long time and a persistent and 
continuous infection. It is not a very common condition in 
animals, and usually accompanies a general amyloid degen- 
eration of other organs. 

Pathology.— The liver is enlarged, sometimes two or three 
times its normal size, and the edges are rounded or blunt. 



CIRRHOSIS OF THE LIVER 243 

The color is grayish-brown^ and on cut section shows white 
points. Microscopic examination reveals the amyloid degen- 
eration. 

Symptoms.— Difficult to recognize during the life of the 
animal, and is only of importance to the pathologist. Other 
degenerative conditions which have been observed on post- 
mortem in small animals are only of importance to the student 
in pathology and will not be described here, as a diagnosis 
can only be made on postmortem. 

CIRRHOSIS OF THE LIVER. 

Chronic Interstitial Hepatitis. 

Definition.— A chronic inflammation of the liver with an 
increase in the interstitial connective tissue. 

Etiology.— The exact causes are not definitely known. 
Infection no doubt plays an important role, bacterial toxins 
from the intestinal tract being carried direct to the liver. 
It may be produced secondarily from other diseases of the 
liver, such as acute and chronic hepatitis, congestion, etc. 
Parasitic invasion has been known to produce it in certain 
districts. 

Pathology.— In the early stages the organ is usually en- 
larged; in later stages often atrophic. The liver maintains 
its shape, the surface is smooth, or in some cases granular. 
The color varies somewhat from a light green to a dark olive 
green, and the liver nodules are separated by connective 
tissue. The consistency of the liver is greatly increased, and 
when incised it cuts hard and grates under the knife, due to 
the excessive amount of connective tissue. The bile passages 
are usually found normal. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms are those of a chronic condi- 
tion, with which is associated a disturbance in the intestinal 
tract. Jaundice, which is usually mild, producing only a 
slight tinge of yellow in the mucous membranes; bile in the 
urine, giving it a greenish color; nausea and vomiting are 
often observed in the dog. An enlargement of the liver can 
be readily detected by palpation. In the advanced stages of 



244 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

the disease there is often ascites, enlargement of the spleen, 
and eventually general cachexia. 

Diagnosis.— In animals a diagnosis is very difficult. The 
condition is usually first noted on postmortem examination. 
An explorative laparotomy in the dog is recommendable. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable owing to the 
changes which have developed in the structure of the liver. 

Treatment.— i)?V^6'i/c.— Small quantities of easily digested 
food (raw, lean meat, milk, etc.) should be given to sustain 
the condition of the animal. 

Medical.— Salines (magnesium sulphate, dog 8.0-12.0) are 
indicated to produce a laxative action. 

Should ascites be present diuretics are indicated to assist 
in the removal of the fluid from the abdominal cavity. 

Surgical. — Thoracentesis abdominis is indicated. (See 
Ascites.) 

NEOPLASMS OF THE LIVER. 

Tumors of the liver are not very common, except second- 
ary to malignant growths in other organs. These consist 
mainlv of carcinomas and sarcomas, which have become 
generalized (carcinomatosis and sarcomatosis). Benign 
tumors are occasionally met with, viz.: Adenomas and 
angiomas. 

Symptoms.— Tumors of the liver are difficult to recognize 
during life, and only in those cases where they become very 
large, producing distention of the abdomen, will they be 
recognizable. Palpation, when done carefully, will often 
reveal the tumor which will be freely movable in the cavity. 
If the tumor is malignant (sarcoma and carcinoma) it will 
lead to symptoms of anemia and cachexia. An accurate 
diagnosis can only be made after laparotomy. 

Treatment.— When malignant tumors are found, no treat- 
ment is of value. Benign tumors may be removed by 
carefully ligating all vessels, and preferably removing an 
entire lobe of the liver where affected. Hemorrhage is 
usually severe when the tissue of the liver is incised. There- 
fore operations on the liver are always considered serious. 



CHOLELITHIASIS— GALL-STONES 245 

CHOLELITHIASIS. GALL-STONES. 

Cholelithiasis is quite rare in animals. Only a few cases 
have been reported where free concretions were found in 
the biliary ducts and these occurred most commonly in the 
gall-bladder and ductus choledochus. Gall-stones are the 
result of a catarrhal inflammation of the membrane of the 
duct or gall-bladder causing a desquamation of the epithe- 
lium and a collection of bile salts, gradually forming con- 
cretions. Infection or parasites gaining entrance via the 
duct and producing irritation are common causes. 

Symptoms.— Gall-stones may exist for some time without 
producing any marked symptoms, depending upon the 
location of the concretion. When in the gall-bladder but 
little disturbance will be produced, but when the concretion 
passes out into the ductus choledochus, severe colicky symp- 
toms are observed, and by completely blocking the exit of 
the bile, obstruction or hepatogenous icterus is produced. 
(See Icterus or Jaundice.) A diagnosis is difficul; and, when 
suspected, an explorative laparotomy should be performed. 

Treatment.— Surgical means should be employed early. 
Under general anesthesia laparotomy is performed, as for 
gastrotomy (see Gastrotomy) making the incision longer, if 
necessary. The portion of the liver containing the gall- 
bladder and duct is brought out through the incision. A 
careful examination should be made to determine the location 
of the concretion. When located, an incision is made down 
upon the concretion just large enough for its removal. Care 
should be taken to prevent the bile from running into the 
cavity. After all the concretions are removed the wound 
is stitched carefull}^ with a fine suture using a small, straight 
needle. A continuous suture is first used to bring the edges 
of the wound in apposition, and then a Lembert suture 
to completely close the opening and to bring the serous 
membranes together for rapid healing. The parts should 
be thoroughly cleansed before returning to the abdominal 
cavity. The laparotomy wound is sutured in the regular 
manner. (See Laparotomy.) 



246 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

RUPTURE OF THE LIVER. 

Ruphira Hepatis. Apoplexia Hepatis. 

Etiology.— O^N-ing to the structure of the Hver being very 
friable and easily torn and its blood supply great, it is not 
uncommon that rupture of this organ takes place. The 
common causes are injuries, such as being run over by 
vehicles, penetrating rib fractures; severe exertion (running, 
jumping, falling, etc.), or during the course of infectious dis- 
eases when there is a severe congestion or inflammation of 
the liver. Predisposing factors are: Degenerative processes 
in the liver, such as fatty liver, amyloid liver, etc., or diseases 
of the heart and vessels. 

Pathology.— The postmortem lesions depend largely upon 
the extent of the rupture. Small hemorrhages are often 
found shoTsdng through the capsule of the liver, greater may 
occur in the form of a large hematoma. In most cases, how- 
ever, the capsule also becomes torn and the blood is allowed 
to flow out into the abdominal ca^dty. The liver when 
examined T\'ill reveal the rupture. The other tissues and 
organs will be pale and anemic. 

Symptoms. — Small hemorrhages in the liver -v^dll not pro- 
duce any marked symptoms. If severe there will be all the 
symptoms of internal hemorrhage, such as paleness of the 
mucous membranes, general weakness, anxious expression, 
weak rapid pulse, and dyspnea; the extremities and skin 
become cold, trembhng of muscles, and finally coma. Death 
often takes place very suddenly or within ten or twelve hours, 
depending upon the extent of the rupture. Small and con- 
tinuous hemorrhages will be observed where the rupture is 
very small or where a hematoma is forming shoeing symp- 
toms of weakness, paleness of the membranes and often some 
icteric symptoms. Such cases often recover in a few days or 
death may occur from exhaustion in four to ten days. 

Diagnosis.— An accurate diagnosis is very difficult. The 
anamnesis may assist in arriving at a definite conclusion. 

Prognosis. — Should be considered unfavorable as most 
cases, especially where the hemorrhage is severe, terminate 



RUPTURE OF THE LIVER 247 

fatally. Where slight hemorrhage takes place, the prognosis 
is more favorable, although if there is some disease of the 
liver present, fatal hemorrhage may recur at any time. 

Treatment. —The treatment must be given as early as 
possible and is the same as for any internal hemorrhage. 

Subcutaneous injections of ergotin (dog, 0.1-0.3) or adrena- 
lin chlorid (0.5 to 1.0 of a 1-1000 solution) are useful. These 
doses can be repeated in a half to one hour if necessary. 

To stimulate the heart action strychnin sulphate (0.001) 
or caffein citrate (0.1-0.3) should be given every few hours. 
Otherwise the treatment is symptomatic. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM. 

General Remarks. — The peritoneum is a serous sac, and, 
considering all of its reflections and fossae, it covers a surface 
very nearly as great as that of the skin. In the female it 
differs from other serous cavities in that it has an indirect 
external opening through the uterine tube; in the male there 
is no opening. 

The peritoneum through the lymphatics and bloodvessels 
has great power of absorption as has been demonstrated on 
numerous occasions. The dog or rabbit will absorb fluid 
equal to 10 per cent, of the body weight in a half hour. 
Fluids and soluble substances are readily taken up and car- 
ried away by the blood, while insoluble substances, including 
microorganisms, are taken up by the lymphatics with the 
aid of the phagocytes. In health, the secretion of fluid into 
the peritoneal cavity and the absorption therefrom is just 
sufficient to keep the surfaces moist and free from infection. 
In disease this normal equilibrium becomes disturbed, and 
either produces a dry condition of the membrane, from 
absorption being greater than secretion (acute inflammation), 
or secretion being in excess of absorption (ascites). The 
presence of the fluid in the peritoneal sac has a further action 
than preventing friction to the surface, and that is by exert- 
ing a bactericidal action. 

The lymphatic absorption is carried forward by the 
lymphatic trunks to the mediastinal glands. Experiments 
have shown that microorganisms can be removed from the 
peritoneal sac ma the lymph stream, and carried into the 
mediastinal glands in six minutes after their injection into 
the abdominal cavity. The peritoneum covering the dia- 
phragm and the omentum is most active in this process of 



GENERAL REMARKS 249 

absorption, removing inert bodies and also microorganisms 
from the peritoneal cavity. The omentum is, further, an 
important factor in preventing peritonitis, in that it removes 
the microorganisms from the abdominal cavity before they 
can produce their pathogenic action. The omentum also 
has the great faculty of localizing inflammation and infection 
by attaching itself to any inflamed organ or possible source 
of infection. It becomes fixed around the margin of the 
inflammatory or infected area, where it adheres, preventing 
generalization. The omentum is an important protective 
mechanism after surgical work on the organs in the abdominal 
cavity. Another point worthy of mention is the fact that 
abscesses which develop following operations, puncture of 
abdominal walls, etc., usually open to the outside rather than 
in the abdominal cavity, due no doubt to the great defensive 
powers of the peritoneum as compared to the other tissues. 

The visceral peritoneum is not very sensitive to pain while 
the parietal is very sensitive. Therefore, the reason for 
extreme sensitiveness to pressure over the abdomen in acute 
peritonitis. The visceral peritoneum even in inflammatory 
conditions is not very sensitive. The natural resistance of 
the peritoneum varies greatly in the different animals. The 
dog seemingly has the greatest resistance, and, therefore, 
abdominal surgery can be practised on this animal with a 
much greater degree of safety than in other animals. The 
cat is slightly less resistant than the dog. However, it must 
always be remembered that there is a great variation in the 
natural resistance of individuals of the same species depend- 
ing to a great extent upon their physical condition, etc. 

As a summary, the defensive powers of the peritoneum 
are of great importance and are: (a) Its great absorbing 
power, removing organisms before they can multiply suffi- 
ciently, produce toxins, and excite inflammation, {h) The 
phagocytic action exerted by leukocytes, polymorphonuclear 
leukocytes and the endothehal cells, (c) The faculty of the 
omentum in walling oft' local infections and inflammations 
preventing diffuse peritonitis, {d) The antitoxic and 
bactericidal properties of the peritoneal fluid. This fluid 
is increased when necessary. 



250 DISEASES OF THE PERITOXEVM 

PERITONITIS. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the peritoneum. From 
the standpoints of intensity and duration peritonitis may be 
classified into: (a) Acute, and (6) chronic. 

Acute Peritonitis.— Definition.— An acute inflammation of 
the peritoneum. From a clinical standpoint acute perito- 
nitis may be divided into: (a) Circumscribed or localized, 
and (6) general or diffuse. Other di^'isions are hardly recog- 
nizable during the life of the animal. Even the most severe 
cases of peritoneal infection often show the least evidence 
of inflammatory reaction. The inflammatory reaction which 
takes place in peritonitis is often a salutary process, by pre- 
venting excessive absorption from the peritoneiun, leading to 
the destruction of microorganisms that have gained entrance, 
and by the formation of fibrin and adhesions preventing the 
spread of infection to the entne serous membrane. 

Etiology.— From the standpoint of cause acute peritonitis 
may be divided into : (a) Primary, and (b) secondary. 

(a) Primary, acute peritonitis is applied to those cases 
where there is no local focus in the abdomen to account for 
the infection of the peritonemn; it is assumed that the 
infection has reached the abdomen by the blood or h-mph 
stream, or from some injury to the abdominal wall, such as 
blows, kicks, gunshot wounds through the abdominal walls, 
bowels, etc., or operations of various kinds on the organs in 
the abdominal cavity. 

(b) Secondary, acute peritonitis is due to infection at some 
localized area in the abdomen, or in the immediate neighbor- 
hood, which develops rapidly producing a diffuse or circum- 
scribed inflammation. This form of peritonitis is very 
common in animals and results from a niunber of conditions. 
It may be due to infection from the abdominal viscera, 
following perforation of their walls, or to inflammation and 
the infection passing through the walls. The following con- 
ditions are frequent causes: Perforation of gastric or 
duodenal ulcer; acute toxic gastro-enteritis; mycotic gastro- 
enteritis; traumatic rupture of the stomach or bowels; 
strangulation of the bowels, vohTilus; intussusception; 



PERITONITIS 251 

foreign bodies in the bowels; impaction of the bowels; rupture 
of abscesses in the liver, spleen, omentum, lymph glands, 
etc.; rupture of the bladder when inflamed; acute phleg- 
monous, or gangrenous cholecystitis; metritis and para- 
metritis after parturition; injuries to the uterus during 
parturition; abscess of the prostate gland, etc. These con- 
ditions allow the free entrance of microorganisms, or reduce 
the resistance of the peritoneum so that organisms develop 
readily. Numerous organisms are found producing peri- 
tonitis, such as staphylococci, diplococci, streptococci. 
Bacillus bipolaris, Streptothrix canis. Bacillus pyogenes. 
Bacillus coli communis. In chickens, peritonitis is often 
found as a prominent condition in cholera, and also from 
different species of fungi, such as Aspergillus fumigatus, 
Aspergillus glaucus, etc. A fungoid peritonitis has also 
been observed in the dog produced by the Sporotrichum 
beurmani. Parasites (Pleurocercoides bailletis) when severe 
invasions take place will often produce peritonitis. Exposure 
to cold, and unsanitary conditions are often predisposing 
causes, especially in dogs and birds. 

Pathogenesis.— As soon as the defensive powers of the 
peritoneum (the phagocytic action of the endothelial and 
other cells, the bactericidal power of the peritoneal fluid 
depending on the presence of antibodies, and absorption 
which destroy and remove organisms) are neutralized by 
any of the etiological factors mentioned, the membrane 
becoming dried and exposed during operations, etc., or the 
presence of solid bodies, particles of food, blood clots, etc., 
the resistance of the peritoneum is lowered and its absorbing 
and bactericidal power interfered with. This allows the 
organisms to develop, produce their toxins and an acute 
peritonitis. 

Pathology.— According to the character of the exudation, 
peritonitis can be classified as fibrinous, serofibrinous, fibrino- 
purulent, suppurative and hemorrhagic. The character of 
the inflammation depends greatly on the nature of the infec- 
tion. In cases of low virulence, such as are occasionally 
observed, the serous surfaces present little more than a slight 
loss of luster, with some slight deposits of delicate fibrin. In 



252 DISEASES OF THE PERirOXEVM 

the ordinary form, in the early stages, there is marked 
congestion of the serous membrane, later the serous surface 
becomes dull, lusterless, and the contiguous surfaces become 
slightly adherent through the depositing of yellowish-white 
flakes of fibrin (peritonitis fibrinosaV In some instances 
there is but little effusion of fluid, but in most cases there is a 
copious effusion of exudation, somewhat turbid containing floc- 
culent masses of a yellowish color peritonitis serofibrinosa). 
The quantity of fluid varies considerably from a few cubic 
centimeters to several liters. In other cases the exudation 
is more turbid and contains piu'ulent material (^peritonitis 
purulenta\ The peritonitis following ruptiu'e of the bowels 
is very virulent, the extidation is ptu'ulent and contains 
bowel contents. In the abdominal cavity a quantity of dirty, 
brown, turbid fluid of offensive odor is foimd. In all cases 
of peritonitis with eftusion more or less blood is always 
present (peritonitis hemorrhagica^ Wien the peritonitis 
results from rupture of the bladder, lu'ine will be present in 
the abdominal cavity, and the odor will be detected in the 
abdominal contents. 

Symptoms.— Acute, diftuse peritonitis, when due to inju- 
ries, ruptiu'e of the bowels, abscesses, etc., usually develops 
rapidly under symptoms of marked general disturbance. 
In the most severe infections the symptoms are principally 
those of a septicemia or toxemia. In the beginning there 
is abdominal pain, restlessness, stift' luuiatural gait, and 
" tucked up" abdomen. Palpation over the abdomen reveals 
intense contraction of the abdominal muscles, and con- 
siderable sensitiveness. ^Mien the peritonitis is diftuse the 
sensitiveness is noted over the entire abdomen: when cir- 
cumscribed only local areas of tenderness are evinced. The 
pain is often severe enotigh in small patients (dog and cat) 
to cause them to groan and cry. Pain is a prominent 
symptom, and is usually continuous, except in cases where a 
general toxemia exists. The respirations are of the costal 
type. In most cases they are diminished, but if fluid is 
present there is severe dyspnea. 

Vomiting is an early and characteristic s^Tuptom of peri- 
tonitis in the dog and cat. It is usually one of the first 



PERITONITIS 253 

symptoms, and is very persistent. The vomitus consists 
mainly of mucus, food particles, bile, and, if severe, of fecal 
matter. 

There is complete loss of appetite noted early in the course 
of the disease. The urine is decreased in quantity, highly 
colored, and contains a large amount of indican. There is 
often severe straining as if to urinate (tenesmus vesicse). 

In the early stages there is diarrhea followed later by 
constipation with considerable tympany. In the very early 
stages the temperature in the dog and cat is elevated (104- 
106° F.). The temperature, however, remains high for only 
a few hours when it drops rapidly and becomes subnormal 
(96-100° F.). In small animals the temperature in perito- 
nitis is usually normal or subnormal. 

The pulse is rapid, small, hard and often wiry. In the 
later stages the pulse becomes very weak, irregular, and 
finally imperceptible. The extremities grow cold, the 
mucous membranes cyanotic, and there is every evidence of 
a deficient heart action. 

Effusion of fluid (ascites) is usually present except in some 
of the more acute cases which are rapidly fatal. The per- 
cussion sound is flat, the area of dulness shifting as the 
patient's position is changed. A friction sound may be 
present in the early stages, but due to the effusion which 
forms early, soon disappears. 

In some cases of peritonitis, due to severe septic infection 
(rupture of abscesses), the course is very rapid and the 
general symptoms of toxemia are the only ones noticed. 
Peritonitis following rupture of the stomach or bowel, from 
severe injury, such as being run over, kicks, etc., runs a very 
rapid course. General weakness, coldness of the extremities, 
and coma may be the only symptoms noted. 

The symptoms of circumscribed peritonitis are similar to 
those of diffuse, except that they are so mild at times as 
to be overlooked. 

Course.— The acute, diffuse peritonitis usually terminates 
in death. The most intensive forms usually ])roduce death 
in thirty-six to seventy-two hours; however, most commonly 
death results in five to eiirht davs. Some of the milder cases 



254 DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM 

terminate in recovery, or chronic peritonitis, which runs a 
long chronic course. 

Diagnosis.— In typical cases the sudden onset, the sensi- 
tiveness over the abdominal region, the fever, the wiry pulse, 
the development of effusion, the collapse and the vomiting, 
present a rather characteristic picture. In some cases of 
rapid development the diagnosis is very difficult and is 
hard to differentiate from septicemia or toxemia. 

In the latter stages of the disease, where deep coma is 
present, an accurate diagnosis is impossible. Often circum- 
scribed, acute peritonitis is overlooked. A careful examina- 
tion, therefore, is necessary to determine the exact condition. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis in acute, diffuse peritonitis is 
unfavorable, especially if it follow rupture of the stomach, 
bowel or abdominal abscesses. Such cases invariably 
terminate in death. In circumscribed fibrinous or sero- 
fibrinous peritonitis the majority of cases make a complete 
recovery. Circumscribed peritonitis, however, due to local 
infection should be looked upon as dangerous, as the abscess 
may rupture into the abdominal cavity eventually terminat- 
ing in death from diffuse peritonitis. 

Tre&tment.— Medical.— In the early stages, diarrhea is 
present and the peristalsis active. In order to prevent 
friction between the peritoneal surfaces, which tends to 
spread the inflammation, small doses of opium (dog, 0.1-0.3; 
cat, 0.05-0.1), or morphin sulphate (dog, 0.016-0.12) subcu- 
taneously are indicated. 

Cold applications, if applied early to the walls of the 
abdomen, are indicated (cold water compress or ice pack) to 
relieve the intense congestion of the serous membrane. Later 
counterirritants may be used in the form of oil of mustard 
mixed with olive oil (1-10). Apply by rubbing well into the 
skin of the abdomen. Hot water applications may also be 
used. Should constipation be marked laxatives should be 
given, such as castor oil (dog, 15.0-30.0; cat, 5.0-8.0) or mag- 
nesium sulphate (dog, 10.0-14.0; cat, 2.0-5.0). Warm water 
infusions into the rectum will be useful to remove feces and 
also to produce a soothing action on the membranes. 
General stimulants (strychnin sulphate, dog 0.001; cat, J 



PERITONITIS 255 

the quantity subcutaneously) are employed to combat symp- 
toms of general weakness and coma. Alcoholic stimulants 
or camphor may also be used for the same purpose. 

Surgical.— When severe infection is present, and in the 
early stages, it is advisable to irrigate the abdominal cavity 
in the following manner: Laparotomy should be performed 
(see Laparotomy) and a sufficient amount of sterile, normal 
salt solution introduced at the body temperature to 
thoroughly irrigate all parts of the cavity. This should be 
followed by a boric acid (2 per cent.) or a salicylic acid solu- 
tion (2 per cent.). The value of this method will depend 
largely upon the thoroughness of the application. Before 
irrigating a thorough examination of the organs and tissues 
in the cavity should be made for ruptures, etc., and if found, 
proper treatment should be applied. When an excessive 
amount of effusion is present it should be removed. (See 
Treatment for Ascites.) 

Chronic Peritonitis.— Definition.— A chronic inflammation 
of the peritoneum which may be either diffuse or circum- 
scribed. As a rule chronic peritonitis is rarely found equally 
well marked over the entire abdominal cavity. From a 
clinical standpoint it is difficult to separate the two condi- 
tions, therefore, they will be described as one. 

Etiology.— Chronic peritonitis may be due to a number of 
different causes, the most important of which are: Intra- 
abdominal lesions, such as diseases of the liver (hepatitis, 
abscesses), the kidneys, spleen, etc., which may reduce the 
resistance of the peritoneum; or from gastric or duodenal 
ulceration providing a focus for peritoneal infection. In 
these cases a general chronic peritonitis results instead of a 
local inflammation, owing to the reduced resistance of the 
membrane, or the low virulency of the infection. Chronic 
venous engorgement from defective heart action would 
produce much the same effect. Chronic peritonitis may 
result from the acute fibrinous form when complete resolution 
does not take place, or the infection is mild. 

In some cases it may result from disease of the pleura by 
spreading through the diaphragm. Chronic peritonitis may 
also result from disturbances of the intestinal tract. 



256 DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM 

Ascites, when due to disease of the heart, may produce 
chronic peritonitis by lowering general resistance, or through 
organisms which gain entrance during paracentesis abdom- 
inis. Parasites (Linguatula denticulatum, Plerocercoides 
bailleti, Echinococcus granulosus) in the dog and cat may 
cause chronic peritonitis by the constant irritation to the 
peritoneum they produce. 

Pathology.— The postmortem lesions vary somewhat de- 
pending upon the causes, and the extent of the process. The 
peritoneum is covered by a thick membrane, which is dull 
white or glistening, pearl-like in color; pigmentation is some- 
times present. In very severe cases of long standing this 
membrane becomes very thick, especially over the visceral 
peritoneum, and can be peeled off from the organs. Adhe- 
sions between the folds of the visceral peritoneum are often 
found, which may bind together several organs into one mass. 
The formation of this membrane is due mainly to an organ- 
ization of the exudation and not to hyperplasia of the peri- 
toneum itself. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms are somewhat similar to ascites. 
The onset is gradual; usually no symptoms are noted until 
distention of the abdomen develops. There is no pain or 
tenderness on manipulation. On percussion a dull sound is 
emitted, and on auscultation, especially if the abdomen be 
tapped on the opposite side with a finger, the presence of 
fluid can be detected by the splashing sound produced. 

There are usually general symptoms of dullness, and lack 
of energy, shown by the animal lying dowoi a great deal and 
refusing to move about. The patient has, as a rule, a good 
appetite unless constipated. Respirations are increased 
owing to the pressure against the diaphragm. 

The character of the fluid varies somewhat. It has a 
specific gravity of about 1015, is of a yellowish or turbid 
color, from the presence of large numbers of cells, and when 
allowed to stand it usually becomes thick and forms large 
amounts of floccul^e. 

The temperature in the dog and cat remains normal or 
slightly subnormal. The pulse is often lapid and irregular. 



ASCITES 257 

Diagnosis.— The character of the fluid in the abdomen is 
one of the chief diagnostic symptoms, and some of it should 
be obtained and examined for its specific gravity, cells, etc. 
A careful examination of the animal must be made to distin- 
guish this from ascites due to other causes. The anamnesis 
may also assist in making the diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable, the course 
chronic. Complete recovery is hardly to be expected, 
although a number of cases have been reported where appar- 
ent recoveries have taken place. Death is usually the result 
of heart failure. 

Treatment. —The cause should be ascertained if possible, 
and the treatment given accordingly. If the cause cannot 
be determined, symptomatic treatment is given. Diuretics, 
such as caffein citrate (0.1-0.3) or diuretin (0.15-0.4) are 
indicated to assist in removal of the fluid. 

Paracentesis abdominis (see Ascites) should be performed 
whenever necessary to remove the fluid from the cavity. 
The dog, as a rule, responds more readily to treatment than 
the cat. 

ASCITES. 

Hydrops Abdominis. Hydrops Ascites. Hydrops Peritonei. 

Definition.— A collection of serous fluid in the abdominal 
cavity. This condition is quite common in dogs, and also 
occurs in cats and birds. Mild cases of ascites are often 
overlooked during life, and are only found on postmortem or 
during operations on the abdominal cavity. 

Etiology. — 1. Local Causes.— (a) Chronic inflammation of 
the peritoneum, either simple, carcinomatous, sarcomatous, 
or by cysts of parasites (Plerocercoides bailleti, Linguatula 
denticulatum, etc.). (6) Obstruction to the portal vein, 
either in its terminal branches in the liver, such as by 
cirrhosis, chronic, passive congestion, etc., or by compression 
of the vein in the gastrohepatic omentum, such as by pro- 
liferative peritonitis, abscesses, tumors (sarcomas, carci- 
nomas, etc.), or by aneurysm, (c) Thrombosis of the portal 
vein, {d) Tumors in the abdominal cavity in general, (c) 
17 



258 DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM 

Cysts of the ovaries (common in cats). (/) Occurs in the 
secondary stage of acute circumscribed or diffuse peritonitis. 

2. General Causes.— Ascites often occurs as a symptom of 
general dropsy, the result of mechanical effects, as in heart 
diseases, chronic indurative or interstitial pneumonia. In 
some heart diseases the effusion is confined to the abdominal 
cavity, in which case it is no doubt due to secondary changes 
in the liver. Ascites also occurs in chronic diseases of the 
liver. In young dogs (puppies) ascites is frequently observed, 
and often disappears as the animal develops, apparently 
without any particular cause being found. 

Pathology. —The presence of fluid in the abdominal cavity, 
of varying quantity from a few cubic centimeters to 15-20 
liters. This fluid has a specific gravity of 1012-1015, a hght 
or yellowish color, clear, and contains, as a rule, but a slight 
amount of fibrin, or flocculent precipitate. The chemical 
reaction of the fluid is alkaline or neutral; the albumin con- 
tent is about 2 to 5 per cent. Sometimes the fluid will be of a 
reddish color, due to slight hemorrhages, or to some of the 
red cells passing out with the serum. This is especially 
noticeable in obstruction to the portal vein. A greenish 
cast is noticed when the liver is secondarily affected. The 
precipitate when examined will be found to contain a small 
number of leukocytes, fatty endothelial cells, flakes of fibrin, 
and sometimes red cells, and in rare cases numbers of small 
cysts of parasites. In dogs and cats the fluid often contains 
numerous fat cells and has a milky appearance. 

The peritoneum is usually pale, glistening, thickened, 
especially in cases of long standing or those due to chronic 
peritonitis. The organs in the cavity are usually anemic, 
dull on the surface and sometimes atrophic. 

Symptoms.— An enlargement of the abdomen is usually 
the first indication of the disorder. Until the accumulation 
of fluid becomes great enough to cause a distention of the 
abdomen, the symptoms will not be positive enough to make 
a diagnosis. As the amount of fluid in the abdomen varies 
greatly, the symptoms will vary considerably in individual 
cases. The fluid distends the abdominal wall, causing the 
muscles and skin to become tense, and the abdomen to assume 



ASCITES 259 

a characteristic pear shape. When the animal assumes a 
standing posture, the fluid collects in the lower portion of the 
abdomen and the amount can be rather accurately deter- 
mined by percussion. Above the line of dulness will be 
noticed a tympanitic sound. Changing the position of the 
animal causes a shifting of the horizontal line which marks 
the upper limits of the area of dulness. 

On palpation the resistance is fairly uniform. By placing 
one hand on the side of the abdomen, and tapping gently on 
the other side with the other hand, a plain undulation will be 
felt. As the amount of fluid increases, pressure is produced 
on the. diaphragm, interfering with the function of the organs 
in the thoracic cavity. Severe dyspnea with cyanotic mem- 
branes is noted in some cases. The pulse is weak and rapid. 
As the cases progress, emaciation appears. The appetite 
is impaired, the digestive tract disturbed and occasional 
attacks of vomiting occur. The temperature is normal; in 
the later stages it may be subnormal. The urine is reduced 
in amount, and often highly colored in the dog; otherwise it 
is normal. The animal may die from general exhaustion, 
or from asphyxia. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is not difficult, provided a care- 
ful examination is made of the patient, its history obtained, 
and all the symptoms carefully noted. However, there are 
quite a number of conditions with which ascites might be 
confused. It might be mistaken for acute or chronic peri- 
tonitis with effusion. By puncturing the abdominal wall with 
an explorative trocar and obtaining some of the fluid, a dif- 
ferential diagnosis can be made. 

Excessive accumulation of fat (obesity) might be confusing. 
However, obesity occurs mostly in old animals, and the shape 
of the abdomen is more apple (broad back, well rounded 
barrel) than pear shaped. 

Advanced pregnancy can be differentiated by careful, 
palpation which will reveal the presence of the fetuses. 
Tumors in the cavity can be differentiated b}' their consist- 
ency and their permanent position. Distention of the 
bladder produces an enlargement which remains in the same 
position at all times, and when ])alpated can be felt as a 



260 DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM 

large body within the cavity. Passing the catheter will 
reduce the enlargement by removing the urine. 

Rupture of the bladder, when distended, will produce a 
sudden distention of the abdomen, and general symptoms of 
stupor and coma often with convulsions. Puncturing the 
abdomen will reveal the presence of urine. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis depends largely upon the cause. 
As a rule, it is unfavorable. 

Treatment.— if erfica/.— The cause should first be deter- 
mined, if possible, and measures taken to eliminate it. 
Should the heart action be deficient, digitalis would be 
indicated (dog, 0.05-0.10; cat, J quantity) to stimulate the 
heart and overcome venous stasis. This drug is further of 
great value owing to its diuretic action, which assists in the 
elimination of fluid from the body. Caffein citrate (dog, 
0.1-0.5; cat, 0.05-0.1) has a similar action. The resorption 
of the exudate may also be aided by the use of diuretics: 
Potassium acetate (dog, 0.5-0.8; cat, 0.05-0.1) ; bulbous scillse 
in powder form (dog, 0.05-0.2; cat, 0.01-0.05) ; diuretin (dog, 
0.5-1.0; cat, 0.01-0.05) every two or three hours, or agurin 
(dog, 1.0-2.0; cat, 0.02-0.08) daily. Laxatives should be 
administered occasionally to keep the bowels open which 
also assists in removing the fluid. Magnesium sulphate 
(dog, 8.0-14.0; cat, 1.0-4.0) is best for this purpose. Dia- 
phoretics may also be administered, although not so impor- 
tant in small animals as in large ones, as the skin glands are 
less developed. Pilocarpin hydrochlorate (dog, 0.005-0.01) 
can be used, but there is some danger of edema of the lungs 
or paralysis of the heart from its use. 

Surgical.— li the fluid produces severe dyspnea and inter- 
feres mth the action and function of abdominal and thoracic 
organs, it should be removed surgically by performing para- 
centesis abdominis. The operation is as follows: The 
animal is placed in a standing position, or on its side on the 
operating table and the hair shaved from a small area at 
the most pendent portion of the abdomen, usually near the 
umbilicus. The surface should be thoroughly disinfected by 
washing with bichlorid soap, followed by alcohol, and 
tincture of iodin painted over the surface where the puncture 



ASCITES 261 

is to be made. A small exploring trocar is used, which 
should be sterilized, and inserted through the abdominal 
walls. When the stylet is withdrawn, the fluid will usually 
flow out in a stream. Sometimes the end of the cannula 
becomes blocked by omentum or bowel. This can be over- 
come by moving the cannula slightly or by re-inserting the 
stylet. The fluid should be collected in a vessel to note its 
character. The amount of fluid to remove depends largely 
upon the condition of the animal. Should, however, symp- 
toms of dyspnea, cyanosis, and rapid, weak pulse appear, 
the cannula should be at once removed. The operation 
may be repeated next day. The punctured wound resulting 
from the operation should be protected by covering with 
collodion and a small pledget of cotton. Death occurs 
occasionally from collapse following the operation. There- 
fore the patient should be carefully watched and the removal 
of the fluid stopped, and general stimulants given, when 
signs of collapse appear. 



PART IV. 
DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIYE ORGANS. 



CHAPTER I. 
DISEASES OF THE PENIS AND PREPUCE. 

Examination.— The prepuce should be examined by observ- 
ing the discharge at its opening, and the condition of the 
mucous membrane. Frequently there will be found a more 
or less extensive mucopurulent discharge which indicates a 
catarrhal inflammation of the prepuce. The preputial open- 
ing should be dilated and the mucosa examined for foreign 
bodies, tumors, ulcerations, secretions, etc. 

The penis may be examined in the follomng manner: 
The animal should be placed in the dorsal position, and 
either held by assistants, or securely fastened to the table 
with hopples. With the left hand, the prepuce is gently 
-pushed downward and backward, exposing the free end of the 
penis. The penis is then grasped Tvith the fingers of the 
other hand and pulled as far out of the prepuce as possible. 
A piece of tape should be placed around the penis just 
posterior to the glans, and \\dth gentle traction the penis can 
be exposed for a considerable distance. The penis should be 
examined for inflammations, tumors, venereal granulomata, 
rubber bands, wounds, fractures of the os penis, etc. 

WOUNDS OF THE PENIS AND PREPUCE. 

There are quite a variety of injuries which are found 
involving these structures. Principally, injuries result from 



264 DISEASES OF THE PENIS AND PREPUCE 

the bites of other animals, and different degrees of the con- 
ditions are found, from small cuts of the prepuce to extensive 
laceration of the tissues. Rubber bands are occasionally 
found on the penis just back of the glans. These, if left on 
very long, result in extensive edema and necrosis of a portion 
of the penis. Injuries also occur during coition as the penis 
is retained in the vagina until the semen is ejaculated, which 
requires several minutes in the dog, and during which time 
the movement of the female will often cause torsion or 
twisting of the penis with subsequent edema. Frequently 
dogs are roughly handled at this time and the penis lacerated 
or cut. The prepuce is often found split from being cut by 
sharp objects, or perforations occur which allow the penis to 
prolapse through the opening. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms depend to a great extent upon 
the kind of injury and the amount of damage done to the 
tissues. Attention to wounds of the prepuce will be drawn 
by the hemorrhage and swelling. Examination reveals the 
extent of the wound. In edemas of the penis, the animal 
shows difficulty in urination, the penis often projecting 
from the prepuce, swollen, reddened, and if strangulated 
will be of a dark color (venous stasis). Thorough examina- 
tion should be made to determine the degree of injury, and 
to discover any foreign bodies which might be present. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in most cases, as wounds in this 
location respond to treatment readily. Not so favorable in 
cases of strangulation of the penis with subsequent necrosis. 

Treatment.— The parts must be thoroughly cleansed, 
washed with an antiseptic solution, and the character of the 
injury determined. Wounds in the prepuce, such as cuts or 
perforations, are sutured after thorough disinfection and all 
ragged edges removed with the scissors. Injuries to the 
penis should be looked after carefully, as they sometimes 
lead to sufficient swelling to interfere with the discharge of 
urine. In such cases, the catheter is introduced and the 
urine withdrawn. Should this procedure fail, make an 
opening in the urethra at the ischial arch to temporarily take 
care of the discharge of urine. Applications of antiseptic 
solutions for a few days will reduce the inflammation and 



PREPUTIAL CATARRH 265 

infection. When the penis is strangulated and necrotic, it is 
advisable to amputate the affected portion. This is done 
in the following manner: The animal is anesthetized, 
placed on the table in a dorsal position and securely hoppled. 
The parts should be thoroughly cleansed with soap and water 
and disinfected. Pull the penis out of the prepuce as far as 
possible, and apply a rubber tourniquet at a point above the 
seat of operation to control the hemorrhage. Incise the 
penis with a scalpel, and if it is necessary to amputate through 
the OS penis a saw should be used for this portion. The 
urethra is protected by a catheter previously inserted, and 
left about one-half inch longer than the stump of the penis. 
It is split with the scissors on its dorsal surface back to where 
the penis was incised. The flaps of the urethra are then 
securely stitched to the stump of the penis to prevent a 
stricture forming at this point. All vessels should be ligated, 
and the parts again washed with an antiseptic solution. The 
tourniquet is removed and the penis allowed to retract back 
into the prepuce. Cleanse daily with antiseptics. 

CONGENITAL MALFORMATIONS. 

Malformations of these structures are not common. 
Arrested development of the penis or prepuce is seen occa- 
sionally. Hermaphrodites are not common among dogs. 
Congenital closure of the prepuce is observed sometimes in 
puppies, which must be opened with a scalpel and the edges 
of the skin stitched back to prevent adhesions. 

PREPUTIAL CATARRH. 

Balanitis. 

Definition.— A catarrhal inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the prepuce. 

Etiology.— Preputial catarrh may be produced by several 
different factors: 

(a) Principally local infection. 

(6) Develops in a number of cases secondary to other 
diseases; venous stasis; phimosis; paraphimosis; injuries, 
or foreign bodies. 



266 DISEASES OF THE PENIS AND PREPUCE 

(c) Sequel to specific infectious diseases, as distemper. 

(d) Follows in some cases of mange and eczema. 

In all of the above causes we find that the condition is 
brought about by infection either as a primary cause, or due 
to reduced resistance of the tissues by other diseases which 
allows secondary infection to take place. In some, accumu- 
lations of dirt will favor injury to the mucosa with subsequent 
infection. 

Symptoms.— The mucosa of the prepuce will be injected, 
swollen, and there is present at the preputial opening a dis- 
charge of pus of a yellowish or greenish color. Some of the 
material accumulates around the preputial opening aggluti- 
nating the hair, drying and forming crusts. Examination 
of the mucosa shows a marked catarrhal inflammation. 

Prognosis.— The condition is not serious as in most cases it 
remains local. When treatment is applied, recovery takes 
place after a few weeks. 

Treatment. —The parts are thoroughly cleansed and all 
long hairs removed with the scissors. The prepuce should 
be washed thoroughly once or twice daily with antiseptic 
and astringent solutions (alum, 2 per cent.; silver nitrate, 
i per cent.; zinc sulphate, 1 per cent.). 

PHIMOSIS. 

Definition.— A contraction of the prepuce in front of the 
glans penis, preventing the projection of the penis, interfering 
with coition, and in some cases the escape of urine. 

Etiology.— Phimosis is a congenital defect in puppies. It 
may cause in some cases almost complete occlusion. It 
results frequently from trauma of various kinds, the subse- 
quent cicatricial tissue formed leading to constriction. Acute 
infectious inflammation (balanitis) with severe swelling will 
produce a temporary closure, and in some cases, owing to 
the change in the structure of the tissues, a permanent 
contraction. 

Symptoms.— In puppies it will be noticed that urine cannot 
be discharged; there may be frequent attempts at micturition, 
with only a small quantity passed or there may be complete 



PARAPHIMOSIS 267 

suppression. In mature animals the same symptom of 
difficulty in passing urine is often present. There is a 
narrowing of the preputial opening; sometimes it is exceed- 
ingly small. Animals suffering from phimosis are unable to 
copulate. 

Treatment.— In phimosis surgical relief should be given 
promptly. There are two methods employed: 

(a) The patient is placed in a dorsal position on the 
table and the parts disinfected. A longitudinal incision of 
sufficient length is made on the inferior portion of the prepuce 
to allow the penis to protrude. The two portions are 
temporarily stitched back to the skin to prevent adhesions 
and a recurrence of the condition. The wound should be 
treated daily with antiseptics. 

(b) The animal is placed in the same position as above and 
local or general anesthesia given. A circular incision is 
made completely around the prepuce, removing about one- 
quarter to one-half inch of its end. The hemorrhage is 
usually slight. The mucosa should be stitched to the skin 
for the entire distance around the prepuce. This will insure 
a preputial opening of sufficient size. Care must be taken 
in this operation not to remove too much of the prepuce, as 
it would allow prolapsus of the penis. After-treatment 
consists in cleaning and disinfecting the parts daily. 



PARAPHIMOSIS. 

Definition.— A contraction of the prepuce around the penis, 
preventing the penis from assuming its normal position. 

Etiology.— Paraphimosis can result from coition. The 
prepuce becomes inverted when the penis retracts, but the 
resulting swelling prevents complete retraction. As a result 
of coition, with subsequent swelling, the penis becomes too 
large to paiss through the preputial opening. It is further 
observed in some cases of paralysis of the penis, organic 
changes having taken place in the tissues from exposure. 
►Neoplasms, such as granulomata, are sometimes productive 
of the same condition. 



268 DISEASES OF THE PENIS AND PREPUCE 

Symptoms.— The exposed penis becomes swollen, edema- 
tous and discolored and when strangulated, gangrenous. 
The animal will have difficulty in voiding urine due to the 
swelling and compression of the urethra. There is stiffness 
in walking. Examination of the parts will at once reveal the 
exact nature of the condition. 

Prognosis.— In early cases, resulting from coition, the 
prognosis is favorable. In cases of long standing, after 
strangulation, or in paralysis, the prognosis is unfavorable. 

Treatment.— In early cases of paraphimosis, following 
coition and before much swelling has taken place, it is 
possible in raost cases to correct the inversion of the prepuce 
and return the penis to its normal position. This is best 
done by cleansing, and disinfecting the parts thoroughly, 
lubricating the penis and preputial ring with some bland oil 
(olive), and by manipulating the parts by pressing on the 
glans penis. If at the same time the prepuce is pressed for- 
ward, the parts will often be reduced without much difficulty. 
Should this procedure fail, it is advisable to reduce the con- 
gestion of the glans penis by bathing in cold water, applying 
alum solution (2-5 per cent.), or by applying tape tightly 
around the glans. After the congestion has been reduced, 
manipulation as above wih often reduce the condition. 
These manipulations will not suffice in cases which have 
become greatly swollen or edematous. It is then necessary 
to resort to an operation, which consists in simply splitting 
the prepuce longitudinaUy on its lower surface, making a slit 
of a sufficient length to relieve the strangulation and allow 
the penis to retract. AMiere gangrenous conditions have 
developed, amputation of the penis must be resorted to. 
After-treatment in these cases consists in applying antiseptic 
solutions freelv. . 



TUMORS OF THE PENIS AND PREPUCE. 

Various forms of tumors, both benign and malignant, are 
found in this location. The folloT^ing varieties are most 
common : 



TUMORS OF THE PENIS AND PREPUCE 269 

Papillomata.— These in most cases involve the prepuce. 
They are small, benign growths, appearing usually as pedun- 
culated warts. Sometimes they are found in large numbers 
with irregular or cauliflower-like surfaces and are usually 
found at the juncture of the skin and mucous membrane. 

Symptoms.— They produce, as a rule, no marked symptoms 
of any kind, except in some cases a catarrhal inflammation 
of the prepuce (balanitis) . 

Treatment.— Tumors should be removed with scissors as 
close to the base as possible. Cauterize the base with silver 
nitrate. A recurrence is unusual. 

Sarcomata, Epitheliomata and Carcinomata.— These are 
occasionally found involving the prepuce and penis. These 
tumors are malignant and show much the same character- 
istics from a clinical standpoint. 

Symptoms.— In most cases these tumors involve the pre- 
puce. They are characterized by their sudden development, 
irregular outline, degenerative changes, and tendency to 
spread into the adjacent tissues. They usually present a 
raw, ulcerating surface, show a tendency to bleed, etc. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis depends upon the characteristic 
growth, and the microscopic findings. 

Treatment.— In case a diagnosis of malignant tumor is 
positively made, the results of treatment are only temporary. 
Ilemoval of the tumor is advised, and the incised portion 
should contain not only all of the malignant growth but also 
include a small portion of adjacent normal tissue. Malignant 
tumors are liable to recur in a short time. 

Venereal Granulomata.— This is a specific, infectious 
tumor formation affecting the penis and prepuce of the dog. 
It is transmitted in most cases by the act of copulation. 
Affected stud dogs transmit it during coition. It may be 
transmitted in rare instances by intermediary agents. It is 
far more common in Europe than in the I nited States where 
it has been introduced by imported stud dogs. The growth 
seems to confine itself to the prepuce, penis, and immediately 
adjacent tissues with involvement of the efferent lymphatics. 

Symptoms.— Venereal granulomata are usually found only 
in tlie best bred dogs. The early syiiiptoms are redness, 



270 DISEASES OF THE PENIS AND PREPUCE 

swelling and a reddish colored discharge from the prepuce. 
Micturition is frequent, and the penis is protruded from the 
prepuce. On palpation the prepuce will be found swollen 
and irregular in outline. On exposing the penis, it will be 
tumified, purplish or dark red in color, and on its surface 
presents a number of vegetative growths. These growths 
may be found also on the prepuce. They are characterized 
by their soft friable condition, tendency to bleed at the least 
touch; they may be sessile or pedunculated. The growths 
first appear in the form of small vesicles, which soon develop 
into pimples at first of a firm consistency, but as they grow 
become softer and more friable. Their growth is slow. In 
six months to one year they can involve most of the prepuce 
and penis. Examination of the inguinal l;yTiiph glands often 
reveals enlargement and secondary changes. 

Diagnosis.— This must be based mainly on the infectious 
character of the growth (its spread by coition), and its char- 
acteristic development. 

Prognosis.— The tendency to reappear after removal and 
the spread to other animals make the prognosis unfavorable. 
Often when the growths are removed from one area they 
reappear on another. 

^ Treatment.— Complete removal of the growths surgically 
is recommended when possible. On account of the tendency 
to recur, they should be completely dissected out, even includ- 
ing some of the normal mucosa. It is advisable to cauterize 
the surface after their removal, and to treat the wounds with 
antiseptics. In all cases the patient must be closely observed 
and at the first sign of recurrence of the growths, promptly 
operated. In advanced cases, with extensive involvement 
of both the penis and prepuce, and where general symptoms 
of emaciation and weakness are present, the penis should 
be amputated even including a portion of the prepuce. 



CHAPTER II. 
DISEASES OF THE TESTES AND SCROTUM. 

WOUNDS AND INJURIES OF THE TESTES AND SCROTUM. 

In the dog and cat wounds and injuries of these organs 
are of frequent occurrence, partly accidental and partly 
intentional. Attempts at castration with the escape of the 
animal before completion of the operation is a common con- 
dition. There will be incised wounds of the scrotum and in 
some cases even exposure of the testes. Bites from other 
animals, such as dogs, cats, and rats, produce a variety of 
wounds and injuries to the testes. Being run over by vehicles 
is a common source of injury to these organs. 

Symptoms.— Hemorrhage from the scrotum will be noted 
in the case of wounds, which should, always be examined 
carefully to determine the extent of the injury. Contused 
wounds or bruises are always characterized by swelling, 
stiffness, straddling gait, and pain on manipulating the testes. 

Prognosis.— Wounds in this location are not as a rule 
unfavorable, although, if extensive, castration of the animal 
may be necessary. Slight wounds heal rapidly. 

Treatment.— Small, incised wounds of the scrotum should 
be cleansed thoroughly with antiseptics, at least once daily. 
If the wound is recent it should be cleansed; the hemorrhage 
controlled, and sutured. Cover the sutures with an imper- 
vious dressing like flexible collodion. 

In case the testicles are exposed, they should be removed. 
(See Castration.) Contusions must be treated as in orchitis. 

ORCHITIS. 

Definition.— An inflammation of one or both testicles. 
Etiology.— Orchitis occurs in the dog and cat from bruises, 
or bites of other animals. Being run over by vehicles is a 



272 DISEASES OF THE TESTES AND SCROTUM 

cause. Orchitis may be a sequel to wound infection, to 
distemper in the dog and cat, and the spread of infection 
from adjacent organs and tissues. 

Symptoms.— The first symptoms noticed are those of 
enlargement of one or both testes; pain on manipulation of 
the organs; and a stiff, straddling gait. We should not mis- 
take thickening of the scrotum, a common condition in old 
dogs, for orchitis. If due to infection there will be more or 
less elevation of temperature, and other symptoms of the 
primary condition. The local temperature is also increased. 

Prognosis.— In orchitis from injuries, most cases terminate 
favorably. In the infective form the gland may be destroyed, 
or becomes chronic and the patient impotent. 

Treatment.— In the early stages cold packs should be 
applied, as cold water or a small sack filled with cracked ice. 
The ice or water pack can be held in place by a bandage 
passed around the abdomen just anterior to the pelvis, and 
fastened over the back and between the limbs. It should be 
renewed after a few hours to keep up the refrigeration. After 
the swelling and pain have subsided, the pack can be gradu- 
ally discontinued. 

In subacute or chronic cases of orchitis, hot packs are 
indicated, best in the form of hot water, applied in the same 
manner as above. Massaging with a small amount of anti- 
septic ointment is recommended, following the hot packs. 
In the infective form hot packs should be used with hot 
water to which has been added some antiseptic. Abscesses 
must be opened and treated with antiseptics. ' Should they 
involve the testicles it is best to remove them. (See Cas- 
tration.) 



TUMORS OF THE SCROTUM AND TESTES. 

Several forms of tumors are found in these organs: 

(a) Fibromata.— In old dogs a marked thickening of the 

scrotum is common. It is due either to an eczema, or from 

the constant irritation from sitting on the testicles. The 

latter is characterized by absence of hair on the scrotum, the 



CASTRATION— ORCHECTOMY 273 

presence of a dark, thickened pad of tissue, and the increase 
in the size of the scrotum. 

Fibroid thickening of the stroma of the glands is observed 
as a sequel to orchitis of different forms. The glands have lost 
their normal resiliency, are hard and non-sensitive. After a 
time the animal becomes impotent and the glands atrophic. 

(b) Retention cysts are found occasionally in the testicles 
of the cat and dog. They are characterized by the increase 
in size of the testicles, and by their soft, elastic feel. A small 
exploring needle can be used to determine their contents. 

(c) Sarcomata and cardnomata occur occasionally in the 
testicles, as secondary growths from other parts of the body. 
These may develop as unilateral or bilateral tumors. Most 
cases observed have been unilateral. They are characterized 
by their rapid growth, their irregular outline, adhesions 
between the testicles and the scrotum, and their enormous 
size in some cases. They are always accompanied by acute 
inflammatory symptoms. 

Treatments— Castration is the best means of relief, even in 
the malignant form. 

PARASITES IN THE SCROTUM AND TESTES. 

Cuterebra Emasculator. 

In some localities a fly (Cuterebra emasculator) has been 
observed which makes punctures in the scrotum in which 
its eggs are deposited. The larvae develop and induce a 
reactive inflammation which leads eventually to swelling 
and destruction of the testicles. The infestation has been 
observed in several species of animal; it is quite common in 
squirrels in certain districts. Castration of the animal, or if 
found early the removal of the larvae, is recommended. 

CASTRATION. ORCHECTOMY. 

In the dog and cat castration is performed in some cases 

to relieve pathological conditions of the testicles; in others 

as a remedial measure in enlargement of the prostate gland 

(chronic prostatitis). It has been pro^•ed quite conclusively 

18 



274 DISEASES OF THE TESTES AND SCROTUM 

that enlarged prostates in the dog are materially reduced 
by castration. The operation is also quite extensively 
practiced in cases where the organs are normal, but to correct 
vicious habits (onanism) or a disposition to wander away 
from home. 

In chickens castration, or caponizing, is becoming quite 
general in certain sections. It not only changes the disposi- 
tion and habits of the birds, but makes them develop more 
rapidly. They become much larger, and the texture of the 
flesh much finer. Hence the operation is of considerable 
economic importance. 

Castration of the Dog.— The operation can be performed 
at almost any age, but is less dangerous before the dog reaches 
maturity. Between the ages of three to ten months the 
operation is safest as it causes less constitutional disturbance 
during the early period of the animal's life. The disposition 
of the animal is changed less, and there is not the tendency 
to obesity when castration is performed at an early age. 
However, when pathological conditions, onanism, etc., exist 
the operation may be performed at any time. 

When the testicles are found in the scrotum, the operation 
is as follows: The animal is anesthetized by using morphin 
0.06-0.2 subcutaneously, or chloroform inhalation. Place 
the patient in a dorsal position, with head lowered, and hind 
limbs spread apart on the table. This exposes the testicles 
and makes them easy of access. The scrotum should be 
thoroughly scrubbed with soap and water, followed by 
liberal use of antiseptics. The testicles are grasped between 
the thumb and index finger of the left hand and gentle pres- 
sure used to make the scrotum tense. With a scalpel or 
castrating knife in the right hand, an incision is made parallel 
to the long axis of the testicle, cutting through the tunica 
propia. The testicle is grasped with the right hand which 
exposes to view the epididymis and tunica reflexa. There 
are several methods used to remove the testicles. The cord 
may be ligated above the epididymis and tunica reflexa by 
using a sterile, silk ligature (No. 10). This is a safe method, 
as it removes the possibility of hemorrhage, provided the 
ligature is securely applied. The other testicle is removed 



CASTRATION— ORCHECTOMY 275 

in the same manner. The emasculator also gives excellent 
results. The instrument should be allowed to remain in 
position for a few rnoments after the cord is severed. Occa- 
sionally hemorrhage will follow the emasculator, but is 
usually not serious. If severe, the vessels should be ligated. 
After the testicles are removed the wound in the scrotum 
may be left open, or a retaining suture put in to prevent the 
entrance of foreign material. The incisions in the scrotum 
should be carried forward sufficiently to afford thorough 
drainage. The scrotum should be kept clean for a few days, 
and the wound washed with antiseptics. Union takes place 
in a week or ten days. It is well to observe the animal, note 
the temperature and pulse for a few days, and if the tem- 
perature is found elevated, examine the scrotal wound for 
retention of pus and secretions. 

Castration of the Monorchid and Cryptorchid Dog.— In 
monorchids one testicle is removed the same as in ordinary 
castration. The retained testicle in the abdominal cavity 
must be removed by making an incision through the abdom- 
inal walls about two to four inches anterior to the pubis, and 
to one side of the penis (note the side of retention!). The 
incision is made large enough to admit the index finger freely. 
The cord is then searched for in the sublumbar region, and 
when found, withdrawn through the opening, the testicle 
following. The cord may be ligated or the operation per- 
formed with the emasculator. The abdominal wound is 
approximated with two or three interrupted sutures. An 
antiseptic pack and bandage should be applied to protect the 
wound and changed daily until healing takes place. The 
bandage is applied so that it does not interfere with micturi- 
tion. Cryptorchids are operated in the same manner; both 
testicles may be removed through one opening, or two 
abdominal incisions made if found necessary. The patient 
should be properly prepared by dieting and administering a 
laxative twenty-four hours before the operation. 

Castration of the Cat.— The same rules in regard to age, 
etc., apply as in the dog. (^astration of the cat is best per- 
formed under complete anesthesia. The animal is placed 
oil tlic ta})k^ in the dorsal position, well liop])l(Ml and stretched 



276 DISEASES OF THE TESTES AND SCROTUM 

out so that it cannot squirm loose. Ether is administered 
until complete anesthesia is established. The hair is clipped 
off with a scissors, and the scrotum washed with soap and 
water and boric acid (2 per cent.) solution. 

The testicles are grasped between the thumb and index 
finger of the left hand, and with the other hand a scalpel is 
used to make the scrotal incision. Two methods of removal 
are used: 

The first method is to make the incision down to the 
testicle exposing it, pulling it out of the scrotal sac, and 
removing it with the emasculator or by ligation. Care should 
be taken in this method to pull the testicle up far enough to 
include the epididymis and tunica reflexa. The other testicle 
may be removed in a similar manner. 

The second method is to perform the "covered" operation. 
This is done in much the same manner as the other operation, 
except that the incision is made down to the tunica vaginalis 
which is not incised but drawn out with the testicle. The 
cord, including the tunica vaginalis, is then ligated above 
the epididymis, and the testicle and its enveloping tunic 
removed. Hemorrhage and infection are not so liable to 
follow this method. 

Castration of Birds.— Capomzm^/.— Castration is com- 
monly practiced on male fowls. A castrated rooster is called 
a capon. The best results are obtained by operating on the 
early hatched birds as it gives them more time for develop- 
ment. Two to three months is the best age to operate. When 
the bird reaches the age of four or five months the mortality 
is much higher and the male characteristics more pronounced. 

The fowl is restrained on an operating table, barrel, or box 
with a cord looped around the wing and one around the legs, 
to each of which a one or two pound weight is attached. The 
bird is then laid on its right side; the weights serve to hold 
it in position. Other mechanical devices made and used for 
this purpose have proved satisfactory. The instruments for 
this operation are made up in special sets known as caponizing 
sets. A set consists of a scalpel for making the abdominal 
incision, spreaders or retractors for keeping the abdominal 



CASTRATION— ORCHECTOMY 277 

wound open, and a special, spoon-like hook for removing the 
testicles. 

The technic of the operation is as follows: The feathers 
are plucked from the field of operation, which is between the 
last two ribs extending from the cartilage of prolongation of 
the ribs to a point about one-half to one and a half inches from 
the back. The skin over this region should be disinfected, 
best by painting with tincture of iodin. The incision is then 
made through the abdominal wall observing the following 
points : 

The skin should be pulled to one side before the incision is 
made, so that follomng the operation, the skin and deeper 
wounds mil not cover one another. 

The incision should follow closely the border of the last 
rib in order to avoid cutting the intercostal artery. Care 
must be taken to avoid injuring the cartilages of prolongation 
of the last ribs. Should they be cut, which is easily done, the 
healing of the wound mil be delayed. Further, the incision 
through the walls should be made carefully to avoid punctur- 
ing the lungs. 

After the retractors are placed in position, and the incision 
dilated, the testicles are located just anterior to the kidney. 
The upper one will be found without difficulty; the lower one 
is brought into view by separating the mesentery with the 
handle of the scalpel or other blunt instrument immediately 
below the upper testicle. Remove the lower testicle first. 
The spoon-hook or scoop is applied around the testicle by 
being slipped over the spermatic cord. Care should be taken 
to prevent injury to the large bloodvessels. The testicle is 
removed by torsion. A few turns of the instrument will sever 
the testicle from its attachments when it can be lifted out. 
The other testicle is then removed in a similar manner. The 
entire testicle should be removed, for if a portion is left in the 
fowl will develop into what is commonly known as a "slip" 
and the object of the operation defeated. After the spreaders 
or retractors are removed the ribs will assume their normal 
position closing the incision. No further treatment of the 
wound is necessary; it closes without difficulty in a week or 



278 DISEASES OF THE TESTES AND SCROTUM 

ten days. The operated birds must be kept quiet for a few 
days following the operation, and fed a light diet. The wound 
should be observed occasionally until complete union takes 
place. In a few cases collections of air under the skin, form- 
ing "wind puffs/' will develop. If these occur they are 
opened and the air forced out. The mortality from caponiz- 
ing should not exceed 1 per cent. 



CHAPTER III. 

DISEASES OF THE PROSTATE GLAND.' 

Examination.— In the dog this gland is best examined by 
digital palpation, and in some cases, when the gland is much 
enlarged, by palpation through the abdominal walls. The 
finger is inserted in the rectum and if any enlargements are 
present they can be distinctly felt by pressing in a downward 
direction; if acute inflammation is present the slightest 
pressure will produce severe pain. 

PROSTATITIS. 

Definition.— An acute or chronic inflammation of the pros- 
tate gland. In the dog this disease is nearly always found to 
be of a subacute or chronic type. Acute prostatitis is very 
rare in these animals. 

Etiology.— Prostatitis is produced by microbic invasion, 
either via the urinary tract, the blood or lymph streams. It 
may occur from the spread of the inflammation from other 
portions of the urinary tract. 

Symptoms.— Prostatitis usually develops gradually. The 
early symptoms are painful defecation and micturition. 
The animal will make frequent attempts at urinating, the 
urine voided in small quantities, or there may be complete 
suppression. Defecation is painful; sometimes impossible. 
The bladder is found distended. The passage of the catheter 
is often difficult due to the pressure of the enlarged glands 
upon the urethra. Gentle pressure on the catheter will cause 
pain, but in most cases it will gradually pass through the 
constricted portion into the bladder. The urine will then 
flow out. 

Digital examination with the index finger inserted in the 
rectum will reveal the enlarged glands. Should pus be present 
in the glands they will be somewhat soft and fluctuating. 



280 DISEASES OF THE PROSTATE GLAND 

The abscesses sometimes rupture, either into the urethra, 
the abdominal cavity or through the skin in the perineal 
region. 

More or less irregularity in the temperature is noted. 

Prognosis.— Although complete recovery cannot be hoped 
for, owing to the changes which have taken place in the 
glands, partial recovery is possible. 

Treatment. — Medical.— Vurgatives should be administered 
at once, such as castor oil (15.0-30.0) or magnesium sulphate 
(8.0-15.0). Small doses of morphin may be given in case 
pain is severe. 

Surgical.— The bladder is examined and if found distended, 
the catheter should be passed and the urine withdrawn. If 
this is impossible, on account of the compression of the 
urethra, immediate puncture of the bladder with a trocar 
may be made. The prostate gland must be examined care- 
fully, and if found fluctuated, indicating abscess formation, 
make an attempt to relieve it by pressure with the finger 
inserted into the rectum. This method is often satisfactory. 
Should this fail, a long exploring trocar is introduced into 
the gland either through the rectal wall or through the peri- 
neum. In either case the finger should be retained in the 
rectum to guide the insertion of the trocar, and also to exert 
some pressure on the gland to force the contents out. Pros- 
tatic abscesses are sometimes found with an opening out 
through the perineum. The opening should be enlarged 
sufl[icient]y to afford good drainage, and syringed out with 
an antiseptic solution. Rupture of the abscess into the peri- 
toneal cavity results in peritonitis, and death in a short time. 

TUMORS OF THE PROSTATE GLAND. 

Hypertrophy of the Prostate Gland. 

Hypertrophy is common in old dogs, and is occasionally 
observed in young animals. In hypertrophy the normal 
glandular tissue is gradually replaced by fibrous connective 
tissue, which leads to an atrophy of the tubules and muscle 
fibers greatly increasing in the stroma of the gland. The 
gland gradually loses its function of secretion, becomes much 



TUMORS OF THE PROSTATE GLAND 281 

larger, and firmer than normal. In the dog the prostate 
gland lies at the neck of the bladder, almost surrounding the 
urethra, and when hypertrophied it causes compression of 
the urethra making the passage of urine difficult. 

Symptoms.— The most pronounced symptoms of hyper- 
trophy of the prostate gland are : Obstruction to the passage 
of urine. The animal makes frequent attempts to urinate 
but either only a small quantity or none at all is passed. The 
straining induced may cause hematuria. The hemorrhage 
results from the pressure on the venous plexus of the gland 
exerted by the hypertrophic tissue. The bladder will be 
found distended and the animal showing considerable dis- 
tress. There is always danger of rupture of the bladder from 
overdis tent ion. A complication of conditions is often found 
in these cases of long standing, such as hydronephrosis, 
cystitis, etc. Constipation is practically a constant symptom 
owing to the interference with defecation. No febrile symp- 
toms are observed in hypertrophy of the gland. Passing the 
catheter will reveal the urethral obstruction. This may be 
so pronounced that it will be impossible to get the catheter 
beyond the prostate. It is possible to palpate the enlarged 
gland by inserting the finger in the rectum, or in very thin 
subjects the gland may be felt through the abdominal walls. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is made by observing the symp- 
toms, passing the catheter, and digital palpation. We must 
differentiate hypertrophy from abscess and inflammation of 
the gland. The difference in the temperature, the age of the 
animal, the size and consistency of the gland, and the chron- 
icity of the process are indicative. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable. 

Treatment.— The bladder should be examined, and if 
found distended, emptied either by passing the catheter or 
by the use of the trocar. 

Laxatives should be given (see Inflammation of the Pros- 
tate Gland). Internal administration of potassium iodid 
(0.1-0.2) daily has been used with success in some cases. 
At the same time injections of Lugol's solution directly into 
the gland may be employed. The injection is made with a 
small calibered, hypodermic needle, which is inserted into the 



282 DISEASES OF THE PROSTATE GLAND 

gland, either through the rectum or perineal region, the 
syringe attached and the injection made. Two to four c.c. 
of the solution are sufficient. 

Castration is distinctly remedial as it is followed by a 
reduction in the size of the gland. Obviously it cannot be 
employed in stud dogs. (See Castration.) Experimentally it 
has been proved that in a short time following castration 
the gland begins to atrophy. The activity and function of 
this gland depends to a large extent upon the function of 
the testicles. Some few cases have been successfully treated 
by castration. 

Sarcomata and carcinomata have been found in this 
gland, but are not common. When found, no treatment can 
be given. 



CHAPTER IV. 

DISEASES OF THE OVARIES. 

Examination.— Several methods of examination are used 
to detect abnormal and pathological conditions of the ovaries. 

(a) By abdominal palpation. This method has not proved 
very satisfactory on account of the small size of the ovaries, 
and the amount of tissue necessary to palpate through. In 
emaciated subjects or when glands are enlarged, palpation 
is useful. In cats with large ovarian cysts, the cysts may be 
felt through the abdominal walls. For abdominal palpation 
the animal is placed in a standing position. The manipulator 
should stand either immediately in front of or in the rear of 
the animal with one hand on either side of the abdomen ; the 
ovaries may be felt in the sublumbar region. This method 
is of value- in a general way, but for accurate diagnosis it 
does not suffice. 

(b) By observing the animal to note any symptoms of 
excitement, etc. Cats with ovarian cysts will often show 
evidences of nervous excitement, epileptiform convulsions, 
etc. 

(c) Direct inspection of the ovaries can be made with but 
very little danger. Therefore in doubtful cases laparotomy 
should be performed and the ovaries examined for inflamma- 
tion, tumors, cysts, etc. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE OVARIES. 

Oophoritis. 

Definition. -An acute or chronic inflammation of one or 
both ovaries. Oophoritis is not observed very often in 
animals. It should not })e mistaken for the normal hyperemia 
of the glands during the estral period. However, acute and 
chronic inflammations are found involving these glands. 



284 DISEASES OF THE OVARIES 

Etiology.— Eesults from injuries, such as being run over 
by vehicles. The compression of the organs may be suffi- 
cient to crush them, or it may lead to inflammation. 

Extension of the inflammation from adjacent organs and 
tissues, as from the uterus and uterine tubes. 

Infection of the ovaries may take place in some of the 
infectious diseases (distemper in the dog and cat), or it may 
be due to some non-specific infection carried to the ovaries 
by the circulatory system. 

Symptoms.— In dogs oophoritis may not be noticed. The 
patient will show stiffness in walking and pain on palpation 
over the glands. In cases where infection has taken place 
in the glands, abscesses may develop, and febrile symptoms 
be present. In subacute or chronic inflammations no marked 
symptoms will be observed beyond an enlargement of the 
glands. In cats epileptiform convulsions may result. 

Diagnosis.— In the mild forms an accurate diagnosis is 
difficult without making an explorative laparotomy. In 
cats it should be differentiated from ovarian cysts. A careful 
examination must be made in all cases. 

Prognosis.— Favorable, except when produced by infection. 
In the chronic form sterility is a common sequel. 

Treatment.— Not much treatment is needed. In the severe 
forms, or when abscesses are present, it is advisable to remove 
the ovaries (oophorectomy). 



TXJMORS OF THE OVARIES. 

Cysts.— Cystic formation in the ovaries is of very frequent 
occurrence, and perhaps much more common in cats than 
in any of the other animals. They consist in most instances 
of unruptured Graafian follicles, and are found either single or 
multiple. Unless they are of considerable size they do not 
produce any marked symptoms. In fact, where they are fre- 
quently found as multiple cysts, and when degeneration of 
the ovary has taken place, marked nervous symptoms will 
be noted. These are excitement, prolonged estrum, and in 
some instances epileptiform convulsions. 



OOPHORECTOMY— OVARIECTOMY 285 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is difficult in most cases. Unless 
the cysts are of large size, and the nervous symptoms marked, 
the condition is usually not suspected. Laparotomy should 
be performed and the ovaries inspected to make the diagnosis 
positive. The cysts appear as enlargements projecting from 
the ovary. Their consistency is fluctuating; their contents 
transparent. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable so far as relieving 
the condition and preserving the ovary are concerned. The 
symptoms can be relieved by removal of the glands. 

Treatment.— The treatment is surgical and consists of the 
removal of the diseased gland. (See Ovariectomy.) 

Other tumor formations in the ovaries are uncommon. 
Dermoid cysts have been found in a few instances. Adenoma 
and adenocarcinoma occur as secondary growths. When 
found the entire gland or glands should be extirpated. 

OOPHORECTOMY. OVARIECTOMY. 

Oophorectomy is extensively practiced to correct certain 
pathological conditions which are found in the ovaries to 
suppress the sexual desire and prevent the female from becom- 
ing pregnant, and to make more desirable house dogs and 
pets as they are more contented and peaceful. Cats, when 
operated during the first few months of their life, become 
much larger, and are much more desirable animals to have 
about the house. 

All female animals should be operated if possible before 
the advent of the first estrual period, as it has been proved by 
experience that some females will continue to show sexual 
desire following complete removal of the glands. Such cases 
are observed in older females, especially those that have given 
birth to young, and these that have estruated normally for 
some time. However, we must take into consideration that 
in a number of cases where estruation follows removal of the 
glands, is due to the fact that a small portion of the ovarian 
tissue has been left in, which develops and frequently becomes 
cystic. 

The effect of this operation on females is worthy of note. 



286 DISEASES OF THE OVARIES 

Young animals operated before the periods of estrum are 
present, show no appreciable change in their development. 
They are active, develop regularly, and in every way make 
very desirable animals. The most marked change occurs 
when older animals are operated. They often become fat, 
lazy, and inactive. Certain breeds of animals show these 
changed characteristics more than others. For this reason 
the operation should be performed before the animal reaches 
sexual maturity. 

Oophorectomy in the Dog.— This is one of the most fre- 
quent operations performed on dogs. It is a safe operation 
provided the folloTsing precautions are taken into considera- 
tion: (a) The operation should be performed when the dog 
is about three to ^ve months old, and before it has had an 
estrual period. (6) The animal should not be operated during 
estruation, notwithstanding the prevailing belief of the laity 
to the contrary. As the ovaries and other portions of the 
generative tract are congested at this time, the danger of 
hemorrhage and inflammation is greater. One should wait 
two or three weeks after the period of estruation so that the 
organs can return to their normal condition, (c) The prep- 
aration of the animal before operating is of special impor- 
tance. The bowels should be empty. For this purpose castor 
oil (15.0-60.0) should be administered twenty-four hours 
p^e^dous to the operation. All solid food is withheld, but 
small amounts of milk and water only may be allowed. The 
field of operation should be prepared twenty-four hours pre- 
viously; the hair removed, the skin washed with soap and 
water, and an antiseptic pack applied. This pack is best 
made of cotton or gauze with boric acid; it is applied to the 
operating field and held in place by a special bandage made 
of a "s^dde piece of muslin so as to extend from in front of the 
forelimbs to a point back of the field of operation, and tied 
over the back. This pack should be kept in position until 
the animal is ready for the operation. This mil ensure a 
sterile operating field. As a last precautionary measure, 
just previous to making the incision, the operating field is 
painted with tincture of iodin. An anesthetic or narcotic 
should be given. In the dog various methods of anesthetiza- 



OOPHORECTOM Y—0 VARIECTOM Y 287 

tion and narcotization have been employed with equally 
good results. Morphin given as a subcutaneous injection 
about twenty to thirty minutes previous to the operation 
has been used with most excellent results. The value in this 
method of narcotization lies in the fact that it will cause 
vomiting in most cases, defecation in some, removing mate- 
rial from the stomach and bowels. Further, it will keep the 
animal quiet for several hours following the operation. It 
may be considered a perfectly safe narcotic, which to dogs 
can be administered in large doses. The amount to be 
administered will depend to a great extent upon the size of 
the animal. Usually from 0.016-0.2 are to be given. 

Chloroform and ether may be used as a general anesthetic; 
both are safe when administered properly. After anesthe- 
tization the animal should be placed in a dorsal position, well 
hoppled and the table tilted to lower the head as much as 
possible. This assists the operator, as the bowels will descend 
toward the diaphragm which lessens the tendency for them 
to protrude through the incision. The incision may be made 
either at the median line or in the flank region. There are 
good reasons for choosing the median incision. There is less 
hemorrhage at this location, it is much easier to locate the 
cornua and the removal of both ovaries through one opening 
can be done with less difficulty. The exact location for the 
incision in the median line is at a point about one to one and 
a half inches posterior to the umbilicus. The incision should 
be made of sufficient length to allow the index finger to be 
inserted, or it may be enlarged so that light can be thrown 
into the abdominal cavity. The incision is made through 
the skin, separating the muscles down to the peritoneum. 
In making the incision through the peritoneum it is best to 
pick up a small portion of it with a forceps, nick with the 
scissors and enlarge with a probe-i)ointed knife. By this 
procedure injury to the bladder or other abdominal organs 
is avoided. The index finger of the right hand is then inserted 
through the opening; follow the left abdominal wall pushing 
the bowels back until the finger reaches the bottom of the 
cavity. At this point the finger will come in contact with the 
left cornu, which is hooked over the finger and drawn out of 



288 DISEASES OF THE OVARIES 

the cavity. Be careful to keep the finger in constant contact 
with the abdominal wall so that the cornu will not slip off. 
When once outside of the cavity the ovary can be located 
easily by follomng the course of the cornu. The ovary is 
distinguished by its consistency. In most cases in the dog 
it mil be found imbedded in a capsule of fat. There are two 
methods of removing the ovary, and the choice of them will 
depend somewhat upon the condition of the gland. In young 
females, before the ovaries have fully matured, and in older 
ones between the periods of estrum, it is safe to remove 
them with an emasculator, unless considerable congestion is 
present. Where there is danger of hemorrhage, the ligation 
method is used. When this method is employed, sterile silk 
or linen is best which should be put on securely so that it will 
not slip oft' after removing the ovary. Ligation should be 
made at two points, around the cornu posterior to the ovary, 
and around the vessels and the broad ligament anterior to 
the ovary. Care must be taken that all of the ovarian tissue 
is removed. Othermse the females will again estruate, and 
the success of the operation -will be incomplete. When 
removing the gland with the emasculator it must be pulled 
up sufficiently so that it will include all of the ovarian tissue. 
It is best to allow the instrument to remain in position a few 
moments. The cornu is then returned to the cavity. The 
other ovary is obtained by inserting the index finger of the 
left hand and follomng along the right abdominal wall as 
was done on the opposite side. 

The location of the ovaries is not difficult when the animal 
is properly prepared. Small, fat patients, with a short abdom- 
inal cavity, will present the greatest difficulties. The intro- 
duction of a probe or catheter through the vagina may be 
used by the beginner. 

The abdominal incision is cleansed thoroughly and approxi- 
mated by using two or more interrupted sutures. Suturing 
the abdominal walls may be done by using two rows of sutures 
one row including the peritoneum, and the other the skin and 
muscles, or may be closed by a single row including all of the 
tissues. This method has proved satisfactory. The abdom- 
inal walls should be accurately approximated as it facilitates 
adhesions and healing. 



POULARDIZING THE FEMALE CHICKEN 289 

An antiseptic pack is applied and the regular bandage 
used to hold it in place. Dress the wound daily and in four 
to six days the sutures may be removed. 

Sometimes animals are observed to estruate following 
this operation, and in such cases they should be reoperated, 
as it results in most instances from a small amount of ovarian 
tissue being left in. Cysts will form in such cases leading 
to a continuance of the estrual period. 

Oophorectomy in the Cat.— Cats are operated to correct 
pathological conditions, particularly cystic formations in the 
ovaries, which are very common in these animals, and also 
to prevent them from becoming pregnant. They should be 
operated if possible prior to sexual maturity, and the best 
time is between the ages of three and seven months. 

The same preparation should be made for the cat as in the 
dog. The most satisfactory anesthetic is ether. The opera- 
tive technic is the same as in the dog. It has been claimed 
that this operation is more dangerous in the cat than in other 
animals, but when done under proper conditions the mortality 
is very low. 

POULARDIZING THE FEMALE CHICKEN. 

This operation is performed on the female fowl to prevent 
e^g formation, and to ensure quick growth and a finer quality 
of meat. The operation is not practiced as extensively in 
this country as in some of the European countries. Undoubt- 
edly, however, the operation will become more popular than 
at present. 

The best age to operate is after two to three months. The 
same preparation should be made as in caponizing. (See 
Caponizing.) 

The operation is performed as follows: Securely fasten 
the bird on a table or other suitable place, and remove the 
feathers from the field of operation, which is between the 
last two ribs. Thoroughly cleanse and disinfect. The 
incision is made between the last two ribs, using the same 
precautions as in caponizing. Retractors are used to spread 
the incision. The egg cluster will come into view at once, 
19 



290 DISEASES OF THE OVARIES 

A section of about one to one and a half inches of the oviduct 
should be removed with the forceps and scissors. Care must 
be taken to prevent injury to the large bloodvessels which 
lie in close proximity to the egg cluster. The removal of a 
portion of the oviduct prevents further egg production. 
After-treatment is the same as for caponizing. 



CHAPTER V. 

DISEASES OF THE UTERINE TUBES. 

Examination.— Examination of the uterine tubes is quite 
difficult, except by explorative laparotomy. They should 
be examined for inflammation, tumors, cysts, and pus accu- 
mulations. In some cases, when the animal is much emaci- 
ated, and the tubes large, it is possible to palpate them 
through the abdominal wall. 

SALPINGITIS. 

Definition.— Inflammation of the uterine tubes. 

Etiology.— Salpingitis occurs as a secondary condition 
following inflammation of other portions of the generative 
apparatus. 

Symptoms.— The diagnosis is difficult unless laparotomy 
is resorted to. Other reproductive organs are usually also 
involved complicating the symptoms. 

Treatment.— Very little can be done except complete extir- 
pation of the affected tubes. 

PYOSALPINX. 

Pyosalpinx is a purulent inflammation of the uterine tubes. 
It is secondary to other diseases of the reproductive organs. 
Removal of the uterine tubes is recommended. 

TUMORS. CYSTS. 

These are found occasionally and when present should 
be extirpated. 



CHAPTER VI. 
DISEASES OF THE UTERUS. 

Examination.— There are three principal ways in which 
an examination of the uterus may be made : (a) By abdom- 
inal palpation; (b) by obtaining the discharge from the uterus 
and noting the condition of the \nilva and vagina; (c) by 
laparotomy. 

(a) In abdominal palpation it is possible to determine 
various conditions involving the uterus. The patient should 
be placed in a standing position. With one hand on either 
side of it over the postero-inferior abdominal region, the 
operator by gentle pressure with the finger can feel the 
uterus when distended, as an elongated, suspended body, 
within the abdominal cavity. Palpation may be used to 
detect pregnancy, pyometra, hydrometra, tumors and inflam- 
mation. Sometimes in order to differentiate between these 
conditions it is necessary to make a general examination of 
the animal. 

(6) In some of the conditions involving the uterus, there 
is a discharge from the vulva. The discharge should be 
collected and examined carefully, noting whether or not it 
consists of blood, mucus, pus, membranes, bacteria, etc. 
The microscope may be employed if necessary. 

(c) By laparotomy it is possible to make a direct inspec- 
tion of the uterus. It is advisable when there is evidence of 
serious involvement of the organ, and where the diagnosis 
is in doubt. The incision through the abdominal walls is 
made in the median line just anterior to the pubis, extend- 
ing forward a sufiicient distance to allow the uterus to be 
drawn out. The uterus may be enlarged. The external or 
serous covering should be observed for evidences of inflam- 
mation, hemorrhage, and rents or tears in^the walls. Note 



METRITIS 293 

the relative size of the two cornua, as compared to the size 
of the body of the uterus, their position and attachments. 
Tumors, pregnancy, etc., should be looked for. The con- 
sistency of the organ is important as it is modified by the 
character of its contents, whether fluid, or solid material. 
The entire organ should be carefully palpated for differential 
diagnosis between pregnancy, tumors, proliferative or fibroid 
endometritis, pyometra, hydrometra, etc. x\fter a careful 
examination the uterus may be returned to the cavity or 
operated as the condition indicates. 

METRITIS. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the uterus which may be 
(a) acute, or (b) chronic. 

Acute Metritis.— Definition.— An acute inflammation of the 
uterus. In most instances it is to be regarded as an acute 
inflammation of the mucosa (acute endometritis). In some 
cases the musculature and serous coverings are involved 
(metroperitonitis) . 

Etiology.— Metritis is a condition in which infection of 
various kinds is found to be the primary etiological factor. 
There are various conditions which occur in small animals 
that favor uterine infection and ultimately lead to an acute 
inflammation. These are: (a) The retention of the fetal 
envelopes. If not expelled after the normal time has elapsed 
they constitute a source of danger to the animal, as they 
form a favorable medium for the growth of bacteria. The 
retained membranes keep the cervix of the uterus open, 
which favors the introduction of bacteria, and interferes with 
the normal involution of the organ. Retained placenta is 
not so common in small animals as the membranes are 
usually passed with the fetus. 

(b) Infection is introduced into the uterus at the time of 
parturition by the use of infected instruments or fingers 
used in cases of dystocia. 

(c) Wounds of the mucosa of the vagina and uterus 
greatly facilitate the entrance of infection. Depending upon 
their depth, wounds may lead to metroperitonitis. 



294 DISEASES OF THE UTERUS 

(d) The retention of a fetus or fetuses which decompose, 
irritate the mucosa, and, if allowed to remain for a long period, 
often produce grave symptoms of local inflammation and 
sapremia. In some cases the uterine mucosa is greatly 
changed by the infection. The uterus may be converted 
into a cavity filled with pus (pyometra) . 

(e) Slowness in the involution of the uterus from lack of 
muscular tone favors the introduction and development of 
infection. For the same reason individuals weakened from 
delayed parturition, systemic diseases, etc., are predisposed. 

(/) In bitches and cats that are kept in cold, damp kennels, 
metritis is occasionally observed, and no doubt results from 
the general reduction in resistance, and from the weakened 
condition of the highly sensitive reproductive organs. This 
favors the development of microorganisms. 

(g) In small animals injuries of various sorts are common, 
such as being kicked, run over by vehicles, or roughly 
handled by persons, especially during the latter stages of 
pregnancy. The uterus may be injured, sometimes torn or 
lacerated, and inflammation with infection is the common 
sequel. 

Pathology.— In fatal cases of acute metritis, marked patho- 
logical changes are observed in the generative tract, and par- 
ticularly in the uterus. The uterus is dark colored, in some 
cases almost black, the mucosa showing necrotic areas. In 
some instances the necrosis extends to the other tissues of 
the walls of the uterus causing perforations. The walls of 
the uterus are thickened, edematous; the serous covering 
is often inflamed as are the adjacent organs and tissues in 
contact with it. Occasionally abscesses are found in the 
uterine walls, or in the surrounding tissues. In the virulent 
cases of metritis there will be found evidences of thrombosis 
of the bloodvessels of the uterus, leading to embolisms in the 
vessels in distant parts of the body, producing in some cases 
pyemic arthritis, etc. The vulva and vagina are swollen and 
necrotic, and a greenish colored exudate of offensive odor is 
present. The other organs and tissues will show the usual 
postmortem lesions of septicemia or pyemia. The blood is 
dark colored and fails to coagulate. The kidneys and liver 



METRITIS 295 

are soft and congested. The musculature in general is pale, 
friable and soft. 

Symptoms.— The first indication of metritis is a marked 
swelling and congestion of the vulva. On digital examination 
the parts will be found sensitive, very hot, and present on the 
mucosa a greenish or brown or blood-stained discharge which 
has a very fetid odor. 

The vagina is swollen, very hot, and in the early stages, 
reddened and congested. Later it becomes dark or dark 
bluish, and in some cases almost black in color, with a foul 
smelling exudate. This discharge is more copious at times, 
as it is forced out of the uterus at different intervals. 

Frequently the animal shows marked symptoms of strain- 
ing, the abdominal muscles become tense, and quantities 
of a thick, dark colored exudate are discharged from the 
vulva. 

The temperature during the early stages is elevated 
(106° F.). Later, as the toxins are absorbed, the tempera- 
ture drops to normal, often subnormal. 

There are general symptoms of suppression of appetite, 
vomiting, general stiffness in walking and pain on palpation 
over the region of the uterus. The animal in most instances 
assumes the recumbent position. 

In mild cases the symptoms will gradually disappear and 
terminate in complete recovery, or in chronic metritis. 

Diagnosis.— The condition appearing as it does following 
parturition, with the characteristic discharge from the vulva, 
and the painful and sensitive condition of the uterus, makes 
the diagnosis rather easy. Careful examination should be 
made in all cases to establish a correct diagnosis and espe- 
cially to differentiate acute metritis from puerperal septicemia 
and pyometra. 

Prognosis.— In small animals, owing to the difficulties 
encountered in the treatment, and the retention of the 
exudate in the cornua, the prognosis is unfavorable. The 
milder cases recover but there is always danger, even in the 
mild cases, of chronic metritis or pyometra developing. 

Treatment. — iU^f/ica/.-^ Owing to the small uterus and the 
long cornua, irrigation is a more difficult problem tlian in 



296 DISEASES OF THE UTERUS 

larger animals. However, it should be attempted as good 
results often follow thorough irrigation. Boric acid (2 per 
cent.) ; creolin (1 per cent.) ; lysol (1 per cent.) ; or theropogen 
(2 per cent.) may be used as follows: A small metallic 
catheter or flexible human male catheter is inserted into the 
uterus and a rubber tube and funnel attached to the free 
end. The antiseptic solution is allowed to flow into the 
uterus by gravity. After | to 1 pint of the solution is intro- 
duced the tube should be lowered and the fluid allowed to 
flow out. The catheter is introduced into each cornua. 
This treatment should be applied every three or four hours 
to keep up the antiseptic action, to remove the exudate and 
to prevent absorption and the resulting general symptoms. 

Small doses of ergot or other ecbolics should be adminis- 
tered once daily to stimulate the uterus and to hasten its 
involution. 

Surgical.— In severe forms of acute metritis, and in cases 
where medicinal treatment does not relieve, it is advisable 
to remove the uterus and ovaries by performing laparo- 
hy stero-ooph orectomy . 

Chronic Metritis.— Pi/ome^ra.— Definition.— A chronic in- 
flammation of the uterus, characterized by the formation 
and collection of pus in the uterine cavity. In case the 
cervical canal becomes closed, retaining the pus, the uterus 
may be converted into a veritable abscess. Chronic metritis 
occurs quite frequently in the bitch; less commonly in cats. 
It makes its appearance in most cases following parturition, 
at any period in the animal's life, but may be found in females 
that have never given birth to young. 

Etiology. — (a) Commonly a sequel to acute metritis, the 
acute symptoms disappearing, leaving behind bacteria of a 
low virulence, which keep up a constant irritation to the 
mucosa resulting in chronic inflammation with pus formation. 

(b) Infection gaining entrance to some portion of the 
reproductive organs which may find its way to the uterus 
direct, or by extension of the process from other parts or 
adjacent tissues, leading to a primary inflammation of 
chronic type. 

(c) Following parturition it frequentl}^ happens that a 



METRITIS 297 

small portion of the placenta is retained leading to a slowly 
developing inflammation with pus formation. 

(d) Injuries of a mild character during parturition, or at 
other periods, reduce the general resistance of the animal 
and particularly the local resistance of the uterus allowing 
infection to develop. In these cases we will often find that 
the female has never been pregnant. Such cases tend to 
develop into uterine abscess. 

(e) Anything which reduces the resistance of the repro- 
ductive organs or the animal's general resistance has a 
tendency to favor the formation of this condition. Exposure 
is a predisposing factor. 

Pathology.— The presence of pus in varying quantity in 
the uterus. The pus is thick, viscid, dark or reddish, some- 
times reddish-gray in color and of offensive odor. The walls 
of the uterus are much thickened, dilated, and in some cases 
enormously distended with pus (uterine abscess). The 
mucosa is dark in color, soft, spongy, and shows numerous 
elevations of various sizes. The process can extend into both 
cornua. In general the animal will show emaciation, the 
muscles are pale, soft and friable. Secondary abscesses are 
often observed in the kidneys, liver and lungs. 

Symptoms.— The most prominent symptom is the chronic 
discharge from the \ailva, which varies in quantity, being 
more copious at certain times than at others. This is due 
to the fact that it accumulates in the uterus until a certain 
distention of the organ is reached, when it will be ejected. 
The discharge is grayish-red, or dark red in color, and of fetid 
odor. It soils the tail, limbs, and hair around the vulva. 
In uterine abscess, with occlusion of the cervical canal, the 
discharge will be absent. 

Enlargement of the Abdomen.— In all cases, and particu- 
larly in uterine abscess, there is a marked increase in the 
size of the abdominal cavity which may simulate pregnancy. 

Careful palpation should be made especially in distention 
of the uterus with no discharge from the vulva (uterine 
abscess). 

General Symytoms.—ln all cases of chronic metritis 
systemic disturl^ances are noted. They are general emacia- 



298 DISEASES OF THE UTERUS 

tion, weakness, rough hair coat, a variable appetite and 
temperature. 

Diagnosis.— Diagnosis does not present much difficulty 
as the symptoms are quite characteristic. Uterine abscess 
should be differentiated from pregnancy, distention of the 
bladder, ascites, tumors, etc. In doubtful cases, laparotomy 
is advisable. 

Prognosis.— Usually favorable, especially so when the 
animal's condition is still good, and proper treatment pos- 
sible. Such animals cannot be used for breeding as the 
condition in the uterus, which cannot be entirely relieved, 
prevents conception. 

Treatment.— Medical treatment is of little value. Irrigation 
of the uterus with an antiseptic solution may be tried. How- 
ever, surgical treatment is necessary in order to properly over- 
come the general symptoms. An early removal of the uterus 
and ovaries will prevent metastatic abscesses developing in the 
kidneys, liver, etc. The operation is as follows : The animal 
should be given a general anesthetic and placed on the oper- 
ating table in the dorsal position with head lowered. The 
incision is made in the median line, beginning just anterior to 
the pubis and extending forward a sufficient distance to allow 
the uterus to be drawn out of the abdominal cavity. Sterile 
silk ligatures (No. 10) are applied around the broad ligament 
at the distal portion of the ovary, and around the uterus 
just anterior to the cervix. The ligature around the uterus 
should be placed in sections, and then around the entire part 
to prevent it from slipping off and fatal hemorrhage resulting. 
The entire portion between the ligatures is then separated 
with knife or scissors, and the stumps returned to the abdom- 
inal cavity. The abdominal incision is cared for in the regular 
way. 

In case of collapse or weakness following the operation 
small doses of strychnin (0.001) should be given. 

PUERPERAL SEPTICEMIA. 

Definition.— A common disease in small animals in which 
either bacteria or their products are introduced into the 



PUERPERAL SEPTICEMIA 299 

general system. Puerperal septicemia accompanies to a 
greater or less extent most forms of septic infection of the 
reproductive organs during the puerperal state. 

Etiology.— Puerperal septicemia results invariably from 
retention of placenta, a fetus or fetuses, or from wounds 
acquired during or following parturition. Putrefaction 
changes in the retained placenta occur rapidly, other infection 
is introduced, and the products of bacteria or the bacteria 
themselves are taken into the circulation producing a general 
septicemia or sapremia. This disease may follow normal 
birth, dystocia, etc. 

Pathology.— The changes in the reproductive organs are 
often slight as compared to the severity of the symptoms. 
The blood is thin, does not coagulate readily. The muscles 
are pale, soft and friable. Ecchymoses are observed on the 
serous membranes, particularly in the abdominal cavity. 
Parenchymatous degeneration is noted in the liver, kidneys 
and spleen. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms develop rapidly, usually in 
from one to three days following parturition. There is 
great depression, the animal lying down most of the time; 
elevated temperature (106°-1()7° F.), increased respirations 
and pulse. Later appear great prostration, subnormal tem- 
perature, cold extremities, etc. 

Locally the generative organs show marked changes in 
some cases, such as swelling of the vulva, the mucosa of the 
vagina; in others little change will be found. There is nearly 
always a copious discharge from the vulva, consisting of a 
greenish colored pus, containing shreds of placenta and 
other material. This discharge has a very offensive odor. 

The bowels are irregular, in some cases constipation will 
be present and in others a severe diarrhea. The symptoms 
usually increase in intensity, the animal reaching a stage 
of coma or collapse. In the milder forms of infection, and 
particularly in sapremic conditions, the symptoms gradually 
disappear and the animals make a complete recovery. 

Diagnosis.— This is made on the sudden onset, the severe 
general symi)toms, the high temperature in the early stages, 
and the characteristic involvement of the reproductive organs. 



300 DISEASES OF THE UTERUS 

Puerperal septicemia should be differentiated from acute and 
chronic metritis which can be made by a careful examination 
of the patient. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is unfavorable, most cases ter- 
minating fatally. Mild cases often recover; more severe 
ones may recover if treatment can be applied early. 

Treatment.— if ec^^ca/.— In cases of marked collapse, sub- 
normal temperature, etc., stimulants, such as aromatic 
spirits of ammonia, spirits of camphor, oil of camphor, or 
strychnin should be administered early. 

Surgical.— As local applications in the form of irrigation 
with antiseptics have proved unsatisfactory, an early opera- 
tion is advised. Before operating obviously the genital 
tract should be flushed with antiseptics. The animal should 
be anesthetized and operated as in chronic metritis. (See 
Chronic Metritis.) Care must be exercised in preventing 
infection of the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity. 
The stump of the uterus should be inverted and thoroughly 
disinfected before it is returned to the abdominal cavity. 

The after-treatment is very important, and prompt 
remedial agents (stimulants) should be administered. 

Irrigation of the vagina should be done at regular intervals 
to control local infection. Normal salt solution should be 
used in cases of collapse following the operation. It is best 
injected intraperitoneally (250 to 500 c.c). 

EVERSION OF THE UTERUS. 

Prolapse. Inversion of the Uterus. 

Eversion of the uterus is not common in the small, multip- 
arous animals, particularly in the dog and cat. The small 
uterus and long cornua present an anatomical arrangement 
which tends to prevent eversion except in rare instances. 

It is occasionally observed in the bitch following parturi- 
tion. The eversion in most cases consists of an invagination 
of the anterior extremity of the cornu into the succeeding 
portion, and should the process continue, it will appear at 
the vulva or even project outside. In most cases the pro- 
lapsed portion will consist of one cornu and a portion of the 



EVERSION OF THE UTERUS 301 

uterus. However, in a few instances there will be found a 
complete eversion of both cornua, the body of the uterus and 
a portion of the vagina. The prolapse of one cornu through 
the uterus usually prevents the other one follomng. 

Symptoms.— The early indications are the expulsive efforts 
of the animal, which are very similar to those noted in par- 
turition. The animal becomes uneasy, looking at its sides, 
licking the vulva, etc. When such symptoms occur following 
parturition, the uterus should be examined. The local symp- 
toms after the uterus appears at the vulva, are quite charac- 
teristic. There is a rounded enlargement between the lips 
of the vulva, at first only slightly congested and swollen, 
later considerably swollen and changed in color to a dark red 
or almost black. When the organ has been prolapsed for 
some time, the mucosa becomes darker, covered with a thick 
greenish or purulent exudate, and in some cases extensively 
gangrenous. 

General symptoms of anxiety, restlessness, dyspnea, 
increased labor pains, and later septicemia are observed. 

Diagnosis.— In small animals care should be taken to 
differentiate eversion of the uterus from prolapse of the 
vagina or its mucosa, tumors, etc. This can be done by 
inserting the finger around the periphery of the enlargement 
to determine its point of origin. Further, the characteristics 
of the prolapsed portion will assist in the diagnosis. In later 
stages, when necrosis has developed with much swelling of 
adjacent tissues, the diagnosis is more difficult. 

Prognosis.— Several things tend to alter the prognosis. 
More favorable are those cases of recent development, and 
especially before extensive pathological changes have taken 
place in the uterus. The prognosis is unfavorable if amputa- 
tion of the uterus is necessary on account of the danger of 
septicemia. The prognosis is unfavorable from the stand- 
point of breeding. 

Treatment.— In case the prolapse is of recent development 
reposition should be attempted at once. The parts should 
be thoroughly cleansed with antiseptics and astringents. 
Reposition should be attempted by gentle pressure on the 
prolapsed portion. Patience is often necessary to effect 



302 DISEASES OF THE UTERUS 

reposition. In case this does not succeed, it is advisable to 
perform laparotomy under anesthesia, and pull the uterus 
back into position. Care should always be taken to avoid 
tearing the tissues, and it is best to have an assistant manipu- 
late the parts in the vulva, and at the same time exert some 
pressure so that the entire prolapsed portion will at the 
same time go back into position. It is advisable to suspend 
the uterus to the abdominal wall after it has been withdrawn 
in order to prevent further prolapsus. This can be done 
easily by simply including the serous and muscular coats of 
the uterus in the sutures when closing the abdominal walls. 

In case the prolapsed portion is necrotic or gangrenous 
it should be amputated at once. The parts are cleansed 
thoroughly with antiseptics, and the prolapsed portion 
drawn out from the vulva until healthy tissue appears. A 
ligature is applied around the entire mass as high up as pos- 
sible. It should be placed in position by drawing it tight 
to avoid postamputation hemorrhage. The mass is then 
removed with a scissors or knife. Hemorrhage should be 
controlled, if present. The stump is thoroughly washed with 
antiseptics and returned to the vagina. The vagina should 
be irrigated with antiseptics for a few days following the 
operation. The ligated portion will slough away in a few 
days. 

TORSION OF THE CORNUA UTERI. 

This is a condition occurring occasionally in bitches pre- 
vious to or at the time of parturition. A twist occurs at the 
junction of the cornua with the body of the uterus, prevent- 
ing the birth of the fetuses. 

Symptoms.— No special symptom of torsion of the cornua 
will be observed. It may be necessary to make a careful 
examination to reveal the exact condition; in some cases 
an explorative laparotomy must be made. 

Treatment.— The torsion can be reduced by performing 
laparotomy. In case it is found that the circulation has been 
so disturbed as to cause necrosis, it will be best to amputate 
the entire organ. 



TUMORS OF THE UTERUS 303 

RUPTURE OF THE UTERUS. 

Rupture of the uterus has been observed in both the bitch 
and cat. It may be due to unequal uterine contractions, or 
to the rough use of instruments at parturition. 

The rupture may be small, simply allowing some of the 
fluids from the uterus to escape into the abdominal cavity, 
or may be of sufficient size to allow the fetus to pass through. 
This is usually a serious condition on account of the infection 
getting into the abdominal cavity, producing septic peri- 
tonitis. 

Symptoms.— The stoppage -of the labor pains, and the 
sudden prostration of the animal are the most characteristic 
symptoms. Examination should be made by inserting the 
finger through the vagina into the uterus and at the same 
time with the other hand pushing upward and backward on 
the fetus. If there is membrane between the fetus and finger, 
one should suspect that the fetus is in the abdominal cavity. 
Laparotomy should be performed at once to make a positive 
diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable owing to the 
danger of peritonitis. 

Treatment.— Prompt surgical treatment should be given. 
The fetus and membranes should at once be removed, and 
the abdominal cavity flushed thoroughly with normal salt 
solution. The rent in the uterus is closed with Lembert 
sutures. Gauze is placed between two of the sutures in the 
abdominal wall to afford drainage. In thirty-six hours this 
may be removed. 

TUMORS OF THE UTERUS. 

Various forms of tumors have been observed involving tlie 
uterus in the bitch and cat. The usual varieties are: Fibro- 
mata, myomata, cysts, and hydrometra. Malignant neo- 
plasms are very rare. 

Fibromata.— These are benign tumors found involving the 
muscular wall of the uterus. In the majority of instances 
they consist in part of fibrous tissue, and myomatous ele- 



304 DISEASES OF THE UTERUS 

ments. In older animals there is a preponderance of fibrous 
tissue. They develop gradually within the muscular walls, 
and project into the lumen of the organ in some cases, while 
in others the growth is mainly toward the peritoneal cavity. 
^Mien extensive, and when the growth is toward the lumen 
of the organ, they may be found projecting through the os 
into the vagina. They are characterized by their slow devel- 
opment. 

Symptoms.— The first indication of the presence of fibro- 
mata will be an increase in the size of the abdomen, simulat- 
ing pregnancy. However, on examination by palpation, the 
difference will be apparent at once. Frequently on inserting 
the finger into the vagina the tumor will be recognized, and 
it should be observed whether the tumor projects from the os, 
or is attached to the vaginal wall. Xo general disturbances 
are noted, except when the tumor becomes of sufl[icient size 
to interfere with the function of the abdominal or thoracic 
organs. 

Diagnosis.— The enlargement of the abdomen, which comes 
on gradually, the lack of general symptoms, and the location 
of the enlargement differentiate it from pregnancy. Further, 
through laparotomy the uterus may be examined direct. 

Prognosis. —Favorable. 

Treatment. — »Sz/?-(/ica/.— Surgical interference by complete 
removal of the uterus and ovaries is indicated. AMien the 
tumors are found projecting through the os into the vagina, 
they should be withdrawn into the abdominal cavity and 
extirpated. 

Myomata.— In myomatous tumors of the muscular walls 
of the uterus, the symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment are 
the same as for fibromatous. 

Hydrometra.— Definition.— A collection of transudate or 
other sterile fluid in the uterus. 

Etiology.— Occlusion of the cervix, or any portion of the 
uterus which prevents the escape of fluid. 

Inflammation of the cervix (endocervicitis) resulting from 
wounds and injuries during parturition. 

Pressure of inguinal hernia producing occlusion. 

It may be produced by ligation of the uterus, as is done 



DYSTOCIA 305 

occasionally to prevent pregnancy. It may develop as a 
simple hydrometra, in which case there will be no serious 
effects upon the animal. 

Symptoms.— Distention of the abdomen which becomes 
pronounced and simulates pregnancy. Its persistence and 
the absence of lactation differentiate it from pregnancy, 
however. There are no general symptoms, no pain on manip- 
ulation of the abdomen, and no change in the other parts 
of the reproductive organs. 

Diagnosis.— Hydrometra should not be confused with 
pregnancy, tumors of the uterus, ascites, and pyometra. A 
laparotomy may be necessary to make an accurate diagnosis. 

Prognosis. —Favorable. 

Treatment.— If due to an inguinal hernia, a surgical opera- 
tion is necessary for relief. In other cases the entire uterus 
together with the ovaries should be removed. 



DYSTOCIA. 

Definition.— Difficult parturition. Dystocia is of frequent 
occurrence in the bitch and cat. 

Etiology. —Many etiological factors produce dystocia : 

1 . In a mechanical way we find numerous obstacles which 
interfere with the expiilsion of the fetus. 

(a) Lack of expelling power of the uterine muscles. This 
is frequently due to general weakness, anemia, etc. 

(6) A narrow and undilatable pelvic canal, which is too 
small for the fetus to pass. 

(c) Constriction of the os uteri, which prevents the pas- 
sage of the fetus. 

(d) Torsion or displacement of the uterus, closing the 
uterine exit. 

(e) Abnormal development of one or more of the fetuses 
which are too large to pass through the pelvic canal. 

(/) Malpresentation or position of the fetus which pre- 
vents it entering or passing through the pelvic canal. 

((/) Deformity or abnormality in the development of the 
fetus. In some instances, as in hydrocephalus, ascites, or 
20 



306 DISEASES OF THE UTERUS 

monstrosities, they are too large to pass through the pelvic 
canal. 

(h) There is frequently a narrowing of the pelvic canal 
from tiunors in the vagina, fractures of the pelvic bones with 
enlargement, etc. 

2. It has been observed frequently that environment has 
a great deal to do with producing dystocia in the bitch. 
Animals that are kept closely confined, fed highly nutritious 
food, and are not exercised, are more predisposed to parturi- 
tion difficulties. Some breeds are more often affected than 
others, perhaps due in most cases to the manner in which 
they are cared for. 

3. Mating animals of extremes in size, particularly a small 
female bred to large male. The young will be too large in 
some cases to be expelled. 

4. Young females at the first birth are more commonly 
affected with dystocia than at later periods. 

5. Females when bred before reaching complete maturity 
often will have difficulty at the time of parturition. 

Symptoms.— In normal parturition it requires from three 
to thirty-six hours for the birth of the young. It depends 
somewhat on the number of fetuses, and the condition of the 
animal. Therefore it is sometimes difficult to determine 
accurately the time at which dystocia begins. The principal 
symptoms of dystocia are : Extreme restlessness ; severe labor 
pains at first, later their cessation; discharge from the 
vagina; general weakness. 

Examination of the patient will determine the condition. 
The following examination should be made in these cases: 

Note the general condition in regard to pulse, respiration 
and temperature. Note the physical condition. 

Palpate the abdominal region to determine whether any 
young are present. Differentiate between the presence of 
fetuses and other enlargements commonly found in this 
location. 

Note the condition of the external genitals; the discharge 
from the vulva. Disinfect the fingers and palpate through the 
vagina. If the fetus has been presented at the pelvic inlet, 
it can be felt. If still in the uterus it may not be determined 



DYSTOCIA 307 

by vaginal palpation. In palpating note the condition of the 
pelvic canal, whether constricted, tumors present, etc. 

Diagnosis.— If the labor pains are normal and no impedi- 
ment to the passage of the young through the pelvic canal is 
apparent, and the animal is in good physical condition, we 
should allow more time to elapse before assuming it to be a 
case of dystocia. However, if the animal is weak, the general 
condition disturbed, labor pains absent, etc., we are justified 
in diagnosing dystocia. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in most cases. Will depend upon 
(a) the condition of the animal, (h) the length of time in 
labor, and (c) the condition of the fetus and membranes. 

Treatment.— A thorough examination of the patient should 
be made at once to determine the proper treatment to use. 
There are three lines of treatment recommended in dystocia. 

Medical.— This is indicated in cases when there is no 
apparent impediment to the passage of the fetus, and when 
the labor pains are weak and insufficient. Extract of ergot 
(0.5-2.0) or pituitrin (3.0-10.0) depending on the size of the 
animal may be given. These doses may be repeated in a few 
hours if necessary. Pituitrin is being used quite successfully 
in such cases. 

Forced Extraction of the ^6^2/^.— Examination is made of 
the condition of the birth canal and the position of the fetus 
noted. Various forms of instruments have been recom- 
mended for this work. Perhaps the most satisfactory ones 
are the smallest forceps, a rather blunt vulsellum forceps, 
and a wire snare. These instruments should be thoroughly 
disinfected, and the vagina washed with an antiseptic and 
lubricant solution (creolin, 2 per cent,; lysol, 1 per cent.). 
The method of manipulation will depend upon the position, 
presentation, and condition of the fetus. All manipulating 
with the instruments should be done carefully to avoid injur- 
ing the vaginal mucosa. An assistant who exerts pressure 
on the abdominal walls in a backward direction will often 
help in keeping the fetus in position until the instrument is 
firmly attached. Gentle traction should be used. This 
method when done carefully will often overcome the diffi- 
culty. 



308 DISEASES OF THE UTERUS 

Hysterotomy.— After examination of the patient it is found 
that it is impossible for the fetus to be born, or after the other 
methods of treatment have failed, it is advisable to perform 
hysterotomy as early as possible. Delay in performing the 
operation is often fatal on account of the infection in the 
uterus from resulting sapremia or septicemia. 

The animal is anesthetized, placed on the table in a dorsal 
position, well hoppled. An incision is made through the 
abdominal walls in the median line just anterior to the pubis 
and extended forward about three to four inches. The uterus 
will at once be seen as a A^oluminous body. It is withdrawn 
carefully from the cavity well surrounded by sterile gauze 
to prevent fluids from flowing back into the abdominal 
cavity. An incision is made through the walls of the uterus 
of sufficient size to allow the fetus or fetuses to be withdrawn. 
If there should be any fetus in either of the cornua they can 
be removed through the same opening. The membranes 
and any other material should be removed from the uterus. 
The incision in the uterus is closed with Lembert sutures and 
returned to the abdominal cavity. The abdominal incision 
closed as usual. 

General stimulants should be administered following the 
operation. 

Hysterectomy is advisable in cases where there is evidence 
of puerperal infection. (See Chronic Metritis.) 



CHAPTER VII. 

DISEASES OF THE VAGINA AND VULVA. 

Examination.— It is possible to make a thorough examina- 
tion of the vagina and vulva by direct inspection. The animal 
should be placed in a dorsal position with the hind limbs 
hoppled forward. The vulva can be inspected directly by 
separating the labia with the fingers. The condition of the 
mucosa should be observed, any wounds or injuries carefully 
examined to determine their depth and extent. Note the 
color of the mucosa. It should be remembered that in the 
bitch there is often a normal pigmentation of the mucosa 
which should not be mistaken for some diseased condition. 
Papillomata and fibromata are commonly found at the junc- 
ture of the skin and mucous membrane. The vagina may be 
inspected by using a speculum to dilate the vulva and a 
portion of the vagina so that the mucosa can be seen. It is 
best to use an artificial light with a reflector to observe the 
mucosa farther into the pelvic canal. The mucosa should 
be examined for wounds and injuries which are common 
sequels to dystocia, inflammation, tumors, prolapsus, con- 
strictions, etc. 

CONGENITAL MALFORMATIONS. 

Various forms of malformations have been observed in the 
bitch and cat. Stenosis of the vagina is seen occasionally. 
Imperfect development of the vulva, vagina and anus during 
fetal life has been noted. These conditions may interfere 
with copulation and impregnation. When found an attem])t 
should be made to correct them surgically. 

VAGINITIS AND VULVITIS. 

Definition.— An acute or chronic inflammation of the vagina 
and vulva. These are very common conditions found in l)otri 
the bitch and cat. 



310 DISEASES OF THE VAGINA AND VULVA 

Etiology.— Mechanically there are a number of conditions 
which bring about inflammation of these parts. x\nything 
causing bruising of the mucosa will result in an inflammatory 
condition varying in degree and depending upon the extent 
of the injury. Lacerations and abrasions of the mucosa make 
possible the entrance of bacteria with resultant inflamma- 
tion. During dystocia, wounds, and lacerations of the vulva 
and vagina are very common from rough manipulations and 
sharp instruments. At this time the animal's general resist- 
ance is materially reduced and serious infection and infiltra- 
tion of the tissues can take place. Infection is frequently 
introduced by infected fingers or instruments. Another 
factor of importance in these cases following dystocia is the 
fact that in the extraction of the fetus, or the discharge of 
the secretions from the uterus, the vagina is further exposed 
to infectious material. 

Foreign bodies finding their way into the vagina ^ill pro- 
duce inflammatory conditions depending upon the kind of 
foreign body and the extent of the injury done by the same. 
Tumors in the vaginal wall usually produce a chronic inflam- 
mation. 

Symptoms.— Acute inflammation of the ATilva is apparent 
from the swelling of the labia and the congestion of the 
mucous membrane. The color of the mucosa is at first red, 
later of a bluish, or greenish-black, depending upon the stage 
of the inflammatory process. At first there is no discharge, 
but later a mucous or mucopurulent discharge is observed. 
In acute vaginitis the mucosa will be red in color, swollen, 
and in most cases the seat of the injury or infection will be 
observed. The animal will be restless, often shows symptoms 
of straining as if to urinate. General s^Taptoms of elevation 
of temperature, disturbances in the circulation and respira- 
tion are often observed from the absorption of the toxins, 
or the presence of microorganisms in the blood. In chronic 
vaginitis the principal symptom is the chronic, whitish, 
purulent discharge from the vulva. Examination reveals 
the chronic infiammatory changes of the mucosa of the 
vagina and vulva. In most of these cases it is difficult to 
make a distinction between the two conditions as they are 
nearly always associated except in injuries. 



PROLAPSE OF THE VAGINA 311 

Diagnosis.— This is made by a direct inspection of the 
mucosa. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in most cases, unless general symp- 
toms of septicemia are present, or in some cases of extensive 
laceration of the mucous membrane. 

Treatment.— The parts should be thoroughly cleansed with 
mild antiseptics (lysol, 2 per cent.), followed by weak solu- 
tions of astringents (silver nitrate, 0.25 per cent., or silver 
citrate 0.5 per cent.). These applications should be made 
daily. 

In case any foreign bodies are present, they should be 
removed and antiseptic treatment applied. When the vulva 
or vagina is found lacerated the extent of the wound should 
be determined by probing, all loose fragments removed with 
the scissors, and antiseptics used as above. 

In gangrenous conditions of the vulva or mucosa, all such 
portions must be removed promptly, and the surface treated 
thoroughly with antiseptic solutions. It is sometimes neces- 
sary in recent wounds of the vulva to apply one or more 
sutures to properly approximate the torn edges to prevent 
improper union. 

PROLAPSE OF THE VAGINA. 

A true prolapsus of the vagina is uncommon in small 
animals. A hypertrophic condition of a portion of the 
mucosa which protrudes through the vulvar opening is 
frequently mistaken for prolapsus. This, however, is not a 
true prolapsus, but inasmuch as it simulates the condition, 
it will be described with prolapsus. 

Etiology.— Prolapse of the vagina often results from injuries 
during copulation, the penis, which is forcibly withdrawn 
before ejaculation has taken place, pulling the vaginal 
mucosa out with it. 

Results also from severe straining, and from inflammation 
of the mucosa. Hypertrophy of the mucosa is observed 
frequently in some of the larger breeds. Great Danes, St. 
Bernards, and becomes a chronic and especially prominent 
following the estrual period. It consists of simply a chronic 
inflammation which is most marked during estruation. 



312 DISEASES OF THE VAGINA AND VULVA 

Symptoms.— The condition is characterized by an enlarge- 
ment appearing at the vulvar opening. At first the prolapsus 
is a red, congested mass, which later, on exposure, becomes 
dark in color and gangrenous. In hypertrophy of the mucosa 
it appears as a rounded enlargement of rather firm consist- 
ency projecting through the vulvar opening and coming from 
one side of the vaginal wall. In some cases it will remain 
outside of the vulva, becoming dark in color and gangrenous 
on the surface; or it may not protrude beyond the vulvar 
opening and appear only at intervals. Usually there are no 
general symptoms. There may be some interference with 
micturition. 

Diagnosis.— This is not difficult in most cases. A thorough 
manual examination should be made to determine the exact 
conditions present. 

Prognosis. —Favorable. 

Treatment.— In prolapsus of the vagina an attempt should 
be made to replace it. The parts should be cleansed, disin- 
fected and if there is much congestion, astringents (alum, 2 
per cent.) may be used. In some cases this will be sufficient, 
in others when there is a recurrence of the condition without 
necrosis or gangrene, it should be returned and if necessary 
held in place by temporary sutures through the labia of the 
vulva. They should be placed so that the urine can be 
voided. Remove them in twenty-four to forty-eight hours. 
When gangrene sets in, amputation of the prolapsed portion 
becomes necessary. This is done by grasping the mass and 
withdrawing it until the normal mucosa appears. If the 
prolapsus involves only a portion of the circumference of the 
vagina it may be ligated. The ligature should be inserted 
through the base of the mass and drawn securely to control 
hemorrhage and stop absorption. In case the vagina is 
prolapsed, throughout its whole circumference sectional 
suturing will be necessary. Care must be taken in all cases 
to avoid injuring the urethra. In hypertrophy of the mucosa 
amputation of the mass is necessary. This is done by thor- 
ough cleansing and disinfecting the parts, withdrawing the 
mass from the vulva, and ligating through its base. The 
mass should be removed with the knife or scissors and the 



TUMORS OF THE VULVA AND VAGINA 313 

stump returned to the vagina. The vagina should be cleansed 
daily with antiseptics until the discharge has ceased. 

RUPTURE OF THE VAGINA. 

During dystocia from rough manipulation, or from sharp 
instruments the vagina may be torn or ruptured making at 
once an opening into the abdominal cavity. This will allow 
septic material to gain entrance which usually produces peri- 
tonitis. In some cases after rupture of the vagina, and when 
straining is induced, or still present from the dystocia, there 
may be a prolapsus of the bladder through the rent. When 
this occurs the bladder becomes displaced and projects from 
the vulva. It will be recognized as a fluctuating enlargement 
appearing suddenly between the labia of the vulva. An 
exploring trocar may be used to determine its contents if the 
diagnosis is in doubt. Laparotomy should be performed at 
once (see Laparotomy) and the displaced organs returned to 
their normal position. If possible close the opening in the 
vagina. If septic infection has developed little can be done. 

TUMORS OF THE VULVA AND VAGINA. 

The majority of the neoplasms found in the vulva and 
vagina are benign growths consisting in most instances of 
fibromata, papillomata, or a mixture of fibromata with 
myxomatous, myomatous, or lipomatous elements. Malig- 
nant tumors are uncommon in the vagina> but do occur 
occasionally as secondary growths, or in the form of venereal 
granulomata. 

Fibromata.— These are found in most instances projecting 
from the walls of the vagina, or from the cervix. They 
appear as hard, firm enlargements, usually smooth on the 
surface, show no tendency to degeneration or necrosis, exce])t 
when they project through the vulva and become irritated 
from exposure. 

Diagnosis.— Made by the character of the enlargement, its 
slow growth and finally by a micr()sco])i(' examination. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in most cases. 



314 DISEASES OF THE VAGINA AND VULVA 

Treatment.— Complete amputation should be done as early 
as possible. Ligation, the same as for hypertrophy of the 
mucosa, is perhaps the most satisfactory method. 

Papillomata.— These occur at the juncture of the skin 
and mucous membrane of the \ailva. They appear as small, 
rounded, pedunculated (usually) tumors. They often have 
a roughened surface. 

Treatment.— Papillomata should be removed with the 
scissors, and the bases cauterized with silver nitrate. They 
rarely reappear. 

Sarcomata.— These are found occasionally on the vaginal 
mucosa. They are characterized by their rather rapid 
growth, uneven surface, and tendency to spread to adjacent 
structures. If possible a small section should be obtained 
for microscopic examination. 

Treatment.— Treatment is unsatisfactory and should not 
be attempted. 

Venereal Granulomata.— Venereal granulomata have been 
described under venereal granulomata in the male animal. 
In the female they appear on the mucosa of the vulva and 
at the posterior portion of the vagina. They consist of pro- 
gressive neoplasms varying in rapidity of growth. 

Treatment.— Complete removal should be attempted, 
except in very advanced cases. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

DISEASES OF THE MAMMARY GLANDS. 

Examination. — These glands may be examined by observing 
their size, condition, and by palpation to note their consist- 
ency or the presence of wounds, inflammation, abscesses, etc. 

WOUNDS AND INJURIES OF THE MAMMARY 

GLANDS. 

In the bitch and cat, wounds and bruises of the mammary 
glands are quite common. They result in most instances 
from being run over by vehicles, by falling, from bites of 
other animals, or the glands may be punctured by sharp 
objects. The degree of injury will vary greatly. In some 
cases it will consist in a simple, slight contusion of the gland- 
ular substance; in others bruising with hemorrhage into the 
gland producing a hematoma, and in some cases abscesses 
result. A careful examination should be made to determine 
the degree and extent of the injury. 

Treatment.— The treatment will depend to a great extent 
on the condition of the glands. In slight contusions but little 
treatment is necessary, while in more extensive bruising, 
warm applications should be applied in the form of a warm 
antiseptic pack containing lysol (2 per cent.). In open 
wounds their extent should be determined and treated with 
antiseptics. An antiseptic pack may be applied when the 
animal interferes with the wound by biting or licking it 
excessively. 

When abscesses develop in the gland, they should be 
opened freely to allow good drainage and the wound treated 
as above. In most cases recovery takes place promptly. If 
fistula or necrosis of the gland should develop, it may be 
amputated. 



316 DISEASES OF THE MAMMARY GLAXDS 



CONGESTION OF THE MAMMARY GLANDS. 

A normal condition occurring at the end of the gestation 
period, and during lactation. It has been observed in non- 
pregnant and virgin animals. The glands become enlarged, 
hot. and sensitive. Xo treatment is necessarv. 



MAMMITIS. MASTITIS. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the mammary glands. 
The inflammation may involve one or more of the glands. 
Mastitis is a common condition in bitches and cats shortly 
after parturition. 

Etiology.— In the majority of cases mastitis is due to infec- 
tion. Pyogenic organisms enter usually through the teat 
canal to the acini of the gland, and from this point spread to 
the perilobular hmiphatics. 

Premature removal of the young seems to be a predisposing 
factor as it permits the milk to collect, congesting the gland 
as is often noted in cats. Streptococcus infection of the 
maromary glands of the cat has been quite often observed. 
It frequently has the appearance of a specific disease appear- 
ing as an enzootic in catteries. Wounds and contusions of 
the gland will produce mammitis and the degree wiU depend 
upon whether or not there is infection. Chronic mammitis is 
observed occasionally in the bitch and cat. resulting either 
from acute mammitis, or occmring independently. 

Symptoms. — One or more of the mammary glands are 
swollen, hot, and very sensitive on palpation. As there are 
no milk cisterns in the gland, the condition extends immedi- 
ately to the glandtilar tissue producing marked inflammation 
and edema of portions of the gland. On palpation the 
portion aftected can be detected. Later as the infection 
develops the milk will be found changed into a grayish, 
purulent mass sometimes mixed with blood. Abscesses, 
often multiple, frequently develop. They open and dis- 
charge a reddish, pm'ulent mass. General SATQptoms are 
quite marked in some cases, especially in cats. The toxins 
absorbed produce general intoxication which is often fatal. 



TUMORS OF THE MAMMARY GLANDS 317 

In the chronic form the glands become indurated and the 
milk canals obliterated. The gland tissue becomes fibroid 
in character. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is favorable in animals other 
than the cat. When general symptoms are present the 
prognosis should be guarded. 

Treatment.— The milk is removed, and the glands 
thoroughly massaged to remove as much of the infective 
material as possible. Hot antiseptic packs or fomentations 
of hot antiseptic solutions should be applied. These should 
be changed every few hours if feasible. Avoid coal-tar 
products in cats. 

Should abscesses develop in the glands they are incised to 
give free drainage. Follow with antiseptics. Small doses of 
castor oil, or magnesium sulphate are indicated to assist in 
the elimination of toxins. In chronic mammitis with 
fibrosis which may also involve the teat, it is best to remove 
the gland. An anesthetic should be given, and the animal 
placed on the table in the dorsal position. The hair is 
shaved from around the gland and the skin thoroughly 
disinfected. The gland is then dissected out, which is not 
difficult, and the vessels ligated. The skin should be trimmed 
so that the edges approximate accurately. A regular bitch 
bandage is applied to protect the wound. Recovery is 
prompt. 



TUMORS OF THE MAMMARY GLANDS. 

Neoplasia of the mammary glands is of frequent occur- 
rence in bitches. Both benign and malignant types are met 
with in practice. 

Benign Tumors.— Fibromata.— i\. very common form of 
benign tumor found in the mammary gland of bitches. It 
consists of fibrous tissue elements proliferating around and 
into the glandular acini, isolating portions of the gland cells. 
Their development is slow but progressive, ultimately 
involving the entire gland. The tumor may appear as a 
pure fibroma or be mixed with other varieties. 



318 DISEASES OF THE MAMMARY GLANDS 

Symptoms.— 'Fihrom.sis occur as hard, sharply defined 
enlargements which show no inflammatory symptoms nor 
tendency to degenerate. The size of the tumors varies from 
a pea to several inches in diameter. When mixed with other 
tumors, they are softer and take on some of their charac- 
teristics. 

Prognosis . — Favorable . 

Treatment.— 'Extirpsition of the gland. 

Lipoma.— Fatty tumor found in old bitches, especially in 
those afflicted with obesity. 

Symptoms.— They are soft, well-defined tumors of the 
gland. 

Pro^^zo^w.— Favorable. 

Treaimeni .—B.em.oYSil of the gland is advisable. 

Malignant Tumors.— Carcinomata.— A very common form 
of malignant growth found in the mammary gland. They 
are frequently mixed tumors, appearing as adenocarcinoma, 
fibrocarcinoma, etc. 

Symptoms.— CsLYcmomsiS are characterized by their growth, 
slow at first but with sudden, rapid development, lobulated 
appearance, and tendency to degeneration and abscess 
formation. A small portion of the tumor should be examined 
microscopically. 

Pro^no^i^.— Unfavorable as they are apt to recur. 

Treatment.— JiemoYal of the gland should be done as early 
as possible. When metastasis has taken place, no treatment 
is successful. 

Sarcomata.— Sarcomata occur usually in conjunction with 
other varieties of tumor, as fibrosarcoma, adenosarcoma, etc. 

Symptoms. — Sarcomas develop rapidly with acute, inflam- 
matory symptoms. 

Diagnosis.— A diagnosis can be made only by microscopical 
examination. 

Treatment.— SsLiae as for carcinoma. 

Other varieties of tumors which involve the mammary 
glands are rare and of minor importance. 



PART V. 

DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND BLOOD 
PRODUCmG ORGANS. 



CHAPTER I. 
ANEMIA. 

Definition.— A reduction in the total volume of blood or 
of its corpuscles, oligocythemia, or of certain of its more 
important constituents, such as albumin and hemoglobin. 
Two forms of anemia are recognized, viz.: (a) Acute, and 
(6) chronic. 

Occurrence.— Very frequently observed in dogs and cats. 
The most common form is the acute. The chronic form 
following various diseases is also of common occurrence. 

Etiology. — (a) Many cases of acute anemia are the direct 
result of loss of blood. The condition develops rapidly 
following epistaxis, intestinal hemorrhage, rupture of blood- 
vessels in the lungs, hemorrhage of the uterus, parenchy- 
matous hemorrhage, or any external, severe hemorrhage. 

(b) Chronic anemia develops slowly and gradually. 
Several different causes are found producing this type: 
Insufficient food, or food of poor quality in which the essential 
nutritive elements are deficient; diseases of metabolism in 
which the nutritive processes are modified and the food 
elements not utihzed in the body. In small animals anemia 
often follows diseases of the digestive tract (catarrhal inflam- 
mation) producing either a loss of appetite or an interference 
in the digestion and assimilation of the^food. This may 



320 ANEMIA 

occur following distemper in dogs, presence of parasites in 
large numbers, or other diseases affecting the mucous mem- 
branes in a similar manner. Large numbers of chickens are 
sometimes found with anemia from infectious asthenia, and 
other diseases of the digestive tract. Parasites of the blood 
are occasionally the cause. Young chicks are frequently 
affected with white diarrhea resulting in a severe form of 
anemia. Many of the general diseases are accompanied by 
anemia. 

Pathology.— The most characteristic feature of acute 
anemia is the paleness of all the tissues and the absence of 
blood. The respiratory passages show evidence of lack of 
blood by their pale, pink color. The heart and bloodvessels 
are only partially filled with a loose coagulated blood. In 
chronic anemia the membranes are found pale and colorless, 
the blood present in the vessels and tissues low in coloring 
matter, and usually reduced in total volume. Fatty degen- 
eration of the heart, liver, kidneys and other organs is often 
observed. Owing to the general weakness and emaciation, 
transudation of serum takes place and is found present in 
the thoracic and abdominal cavities in varying quantities. 
Lesions of the primary condition producing anemia are often 
apparent. 

Symptoms. — (a) Acute Anemia.— The symiptoms of acute 
anemia, when due to hemorrhage, come on suddenly, and 
depend upon the amount of blood lost. The patient becomes 
very weak, may be unable to stand, or if standing does so 
mth difficulty. In attempts at walking the animal will show 
muscular incoordination and frequently falls down. Depres- 
sion, subnormal temperature and increased respirations are 
prominent symptoms. The mucous membranes are pale or 
colorless and the heart action may be very weak or imper- 
ceptible. In some instances evidence of the hemorrhage will 
be present by the discharge of blood either from the nasal 
passages, mouth or wound. Many cases terminate fatally 
in a few^ minutes, or hours, when the hemorrhage is severe. 

(b) Chronic Anemia.— In chronic anemia the symptoms 
come on more slowly and gradually with more or less emacia- 
tion and general debility. The hair coat or plumage becomes 



ANEMIA 321 

rough, and the eyes sunken. The animal is easily fatigued, 
and unsteady in its movements. It will lie down much of 
the time and refuses to move or get up when called. The 
mucous membranes are pale or colorless. The heart action 
is irregular, the pulse weak, and the respirations shallow and 
accelerated. The appetite becomes variable and entirely 
suppressed in some cases; in others it is retained but weakness 
and emaciation continue. The blood when examined will 
show a reduction in hemoglobin content and the number of 
red corpuscles diminished in proportion to the number of 
white. Later as the disease progresses edematous swellings 
are found along the abdomen, under the neck, and on the 
limbs. Other symptoms may be present depending upon the 
complicating conditions present. ' 

Course.— The course of acute anemia is short, lasting in the 
majority of cases only a few hours. In the chronic form the 
course is much longer lasting for several weeks or months. 
In this case the course will depend very largely upon the 
cause of the condition. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis does not present any dilBSculty. 
This is particularly true in the acute form. A differential 
diagnosis is necessary in some cases to distinguish it from 
diseases of the heart, or leukemia. In the former the 
examination of the heart will reveal the difference, while in 
the latter case an examination of the blood will at once make 
clear the distinction between the two conditions. 

Prognosis.— The acute form, providing the animal does 
not succumb from the hemorrhage, will disappear promptly. 
The elements of the blood will soon be normal from the 
drinking of large quantities of water and ingesting nutritious 
foods. 

In the chronic form the prognosis is not considered very 
favorable. It will depend largely upon the primary factor 
producing the anemia. A careful examination should be 
made in all cases to determine if possible the actual condi- 
tions. Many patients will recover completely after the 
elimination of the causative factor. 

Treatment.— In acute anemia when hemorrhage is taking 
place an attempt should be made to arrest it at once. If it is 
21 



322 ANEMIA 

external, the vessels should either be ligated or, if this is 
impossible, pack the wound and apply a bandage to compress 
the vessels. Internal hemorrhage may be controlled by 
administering hemostatics. Adrenalin chlorid solution (1- 
1000), using 1-2 c.c. intravenously. This may be repeated 
in thirty minutes if necessary. Ergot and fluidextract of 
hydrastis may also be used. 

Rectal injections of normal salt solution are recommended. 
Inject the solution as high up into the rectum as possible. 
The solution should be at or near the body temperature. 
Intravenous injection of salt solution in small animals is 
unsatisfactory. In the chronic form determine the cause of 
the condition if possible and apply treatment to correct it. 

The diet is an important thing in the treatment of anemia. 
Foods should be given that are rich in protein. Meat and 
meat scraps, milk and eggs have proved of great value. 
These substances should be given frequently and in small 
quantities to obtain the maximum benefit. Later the amount 
and the time between the feeding periods can be increased. 
Numerous medicinal preparations have been used, but 
the iron compounds have given the best results. Iron 
and quinin citrate in doses of 0.1-0.5 tmce daily are of 
great value as a general tonic and alterative. Reduced iron, 
saccharated carbonate of iron, and sulphate of iron have been 
used successfully. Small doses of these preparations can be 
given for a few weeks if necessary. Fowler's solution of 
arsenic in doses of 0.1-0.8 daily is excellent. Carlsbad salts 
should be given in small doses along with the iron prepara- 
tions. Good hygienic conditions should always be observed. 



LEUKEMIA. 

Definition.— A disease characterized by an increase in the 
white corpuscles, together wdth changes in the spleen, lymph 
glands, or bone-marrow. Two forms are recognized, viz.: 
(a) Myelogenous, and (b) lymphatic. The distinction is 
based on whether there is an increase in the leukocytes or 
lymphocytes. Combination of the two conditions may be 



LEUKEMIA 323 

found, or variations and degrees of either of the two forms 
may be present. 

Occurrence.— This disease occurs most frequently in dogs, 
occasionally in cats. 

Etiology.— Nothing is definitely proved relative to the 
cause of leukemia. The disease is probably of an infectious 
origin, but experiments conducted along this line have given 
negative results. Toxic agents have been given as the 
cause, as have injuries and various other factors. 

Pathology.— On necropsy in leukemia it is often difficult 
to make a distinction between the two forms as the lesions 
of both occur concomitantly in the majority of cases. It is 
characterized by enlargement of the spleen, lymph glands, 
liver, kidneys and distinct changes in the marrow of the 
bones. 

The spleen is enlarged (in some instances three to four 
times its normal size), dense and often easily torn. Fre- 
quently nodules are seen projecting from its surface. The 
color is dark red, and on cut surface dry, and shows numer- 
ous whitish colored, enlarged follicles each of about the size 
of a wheat grain. The stroma of the gland and the capsule 
are thickened. 

The lymph glands are found enlarged. They are harder 
or softer than normal, of a whitish or gray color, sometimes 
showing small red points over a cut surface. The surface 
when scraped gives off a yellowish, creamy material. The 
majority of lymph glands will be found affected. The bone- 
marrow is of a dark red or gray color, and soft consistency. 
On examination the bone-marrow will be found very rich in 
white corpuscles. 

The liver is enlarged and shows numerous small nodules 
of lymphoid tissue. The kidneys are enlarged in the same 
manner. Small nodes will be found throughout the serous 
membranes, lungs and other tissues in the body. 

Symptoms.— The early development of leukemia is usually 
not observed. Very often the disease is not recognized until 
the symptoms become prominent and it has reached the 
advanced stage. The early sym})toms are very similar to 
those of anemia, and the differential diagnosis may bo^vcry 



324 AXEMIA 

difficult until decided changes take place either in the blood 
or hTQphatic system. The mucous membranes are very 
pale or white in color, the animal becomes weak and edema- 
tous swellings may appear. The enlargement of the hTuph 
glands comes on gradually and is found invohing practically 
all of the palpable glands. The enlargements vary in size, 
but stand out in some cases verv' prominently. The glands 
are firm, non-painful and well circumscribed or defined. 
The glands in the submaxillary space, at the phar\'nx, chest 
and inguinal regions show most enlargement. The move- 
ment of the animal may be interfered with on accoimt of the 
increase in size of the hTuph glands. Respiratory distiu-b- 
ances may be present when the glands become large enough 
to compress bloodvessels or nerves. Extensive edemas are 
often present from the same cause. Ascites is a common 
SATQptom in dogs from enlargement of the mesenteric glands. 
The spleen is enlarged but difficult to palpate on accoimt of 
its position; the enlargement of the abdomen may be the 
result of the enlargement of the spleen or liver, or both. 
Percussion of the abdomen may assist in determiniug the 
character of the enlargement. 

Owing to the invoh'ement of the bone-marrow the animal 
is lame and shows stiffness and soreness in movement. 
Pressure on the long bones frequently shows marked sensi- 
tiveness and paiD. 

Characteristic alterations are found in the blood. It 
appears pale red, or even brown, indicatiug a reduction in 
hemoglobiu. ^Vhen allowed to stand and coagulate (which it 
does slowlyj it separates into two layers, the lower consist- 
ing of red corpuscles, while the upper is composed of white 
corpuscles and fibrin. The number of white corpuscles is 
always increased; in some cases equal in nimiber to the 
red ones. A decrease in the number of red corpuscles can 
be demonstrated in most cases. A differentiation may be 
made between the two forms of leukemia by the blood 
examhiation. In hTuphatic leukemia the hTQphoc\i:es are 
foimd increased, while in myelogenous leukemia the leuko- 
c}~tes are foimd in much larger niunbers. Chnically the 
disease develops gradually, emaciation more prominent, and 



INFECTIOUS LEUKEMIA OF CHICKENS 325 

more or less extensive liemorrhages occur in the various 
organs. 

Course.— The disease is usually chronic. The acute form 
is very rare in small animals. The course usually extends 
over a long period, and complications are common. 

Diagnosis.— The characteristic involvement of the lymph 
glands, spleen and liver, and the increase in the number of 
white corpuscles, will make the diagnosis comparatively 
easy. A microscopic examination of the blood is necessary 
in order to make the diagnosis accurate. The differentiation 
between the forms of leukemia is determined definitely in this 
manner. 

Prognosis.— Very unfavorable. When the disease is once 
established there is little hope of recovery. 

Treatment.— Owing to the pathological changes present 
not much can be expected in the way of treatment. In some 
cases the patient's general condition may be improved by 
allowing plenty of nutritious food and administering altera- 
tives and tonics. Iron and quinin citrate (0.2 to 0.4 twice 
daily) have given the best results. Transfusion of blood 
has proved unsatisfactory in small animals. 

INFECTIOUS LEUKEMIA OF CHICKENS. 

Definition.— An infectious disease of chickens probably 
produced by an ultramicroscopic virus. It is characterized 
by an increase in the number of leukocytes, an atrophy of 
the marrow of the bones, and an increase in the size of the 
spleen and liver. In many cases the number of red blood 
corpuscles is reduced and the white ones increased. 

Occurrence.— Up to the present time the disease is found 
only in chickens. Other fowls are not affecte^. It often 
appears in an enzootic or epizootic form when large numbers 
in a flock or community will be afi^ected. 

Etiology.— From rather extensive investigations made 
with this disease it is evidently due to a virus found in the 
affected organs, viz.: The spleen, lymph glands, and bone- 
marrow. The disease is easily transmitted by intraperi- 
toneal or intravenous injections, while subcutaneous injec- 



326 ANEMIA 

tions prove negative. Animals other than chickens are not 
susceptible to the disease. 

Pathogenesis.— The method of development of infectious 
leukemia has not been definitely proved. The vii-us of the 
disease by irritation produces an increase in the number of 
white blood cells in the capillaries of the spleen, bone-marrow 
and liver. 

Pathology.— The most pronounced lesions are found in the 
spleen, liver and marrow of the bones. The spleen and 
liver are much enlarged, and the bone-marrow reddened and 
congested. The lymph glands are also enlarged occasionally. 
The blood is lighter in color than normal (less hemoglobin) 
and contains a larger proportion of leukocytes than normally. 
General anemia is apparent bj^ the wasted tissues. 

Symptoms.— The period of incubation is approximately 
thirty to sixty days. The disease develops very slowly and 
insidiously. Some cases may assume an acute form, the 
birds succumbing in about two wrecks. The early indications 
are anemia as indicated by the paleness of the comb and 
wattles and a decided loss in weight. Later as the disease 
continues there is a tendency for hemorrhages to take place 
even from slight wounds, indicating a hemorrhagic diathesis. 

Examination of the blood reveals the true condition. 
There will be found a great increase in white corpuscles and 
a material reduction in the number of red. The latter may 
be reduced to one-fourth their normal number. The hemo- 
globin content of the blood is also reduced giving it a pale 
color and reducing its staining properties. 

The condition when chronic develops gradually and the 
chicken often dies from exhaustion. 

CJourse. — The course of the disease is quite variable. Many 
cases apparently run a very rapid course after the appearance 
of the first symptoms, lasting from one to three weeks. 
Others may linger longer or from one to four months. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis can be established only by 
necropsy and a microscopic examination of the blood to deter- 
mine the ratio of the white to the red corpuscles. Differen- 
tial diagnosis may be difficult, but considering the lesions 



PSEUDOLEUKEMIA— HODGKIN'S DISEASE 327 

and the fact that a number of fowls may be affected at the 
same time, assist in arriving at the diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— Very unfavorable. Recoveries are very rare. 

Treatment.— No treatment has proved of any value. Dis- 
infection of the premises and destruction of all affected birds 
are advisable. 

PSEUDOLEUKEMIA. HODGKIN'S DISEASE. 

Definition.— A disease characterized by a progressive 
enlargement of the blood-forming organs (spleen, liver, 
lymphatic glands) and nodular growths in these and other 
organs. It resembles leukemia in many respects. A 
notable exception is that the white corpuscles are not 
increased as in leukemia. 

Occurrence.— The disease appears most commonly in dogs, 
cats and chickens. It is more common, however, in dogs and 
chickens than leukemia. 

Etiology.— The true character of the disease is not known. 
The etiological factors are believed by some authorities to be 
identical with leukemia. Others are not in accord with this 
belief. 

Pathology.— The lesions found in pseudoleukemia resemble 
very much those found in true leukemia. Enlargement of 
the spleen, liver and lymph glands is observed in most cases. 

Symptoms.— Progressive anemia and enlargement of the 
lymph glands are the prominent early symptoms. Examina- 
tion of the blood will show that the ratio between the red 
and white corpuscles is nearly normal. Other symptoms are 
practically the same as in leukemia. 

Diagnosis.— A diagnosis can be made only by a micro- 
scopic examination of the blood. It should be differentiated 
from leukemia, malignant tumors and tuberculosis. 

Prognosis. —Unfavorable. 

Treatment. —Treatment is unsatisfactory. Iron and quinin 
citrate (0.2 to 0.4 twice daily), or Fowler's solution of arsenic 
(0.2 to O.G once daily) may be tried. Potassium iodid in 
small doses is also recommended. 



328 ANEMIA 

HEMOPHILIA. 

A constitutional defect in which tliere is a tendency for 
uncontrollable hemorrhage from slight wounds. It may 
occur after slight injuries, congestions, or apparently spon- 
taneously. The coagulation of the blood is retarded or 
absent. Hemophilia is very rare in animals. For further 
information the reader is referred to other works. 

SCURVY. SCORBUTUS. 

Definition.— A disease characterized by marked debility 
and weakness, spongy and ulcerative condition of the gums 
wdth bleeding and a tendency to hemorrhage in the various 
organs. 

Occurrence.— Scur\^^ is not very common in animals. A 
few cases have been found in dogs. Ulcerative stomatitis is 
often mistaken for true scorbutus. 

Etiology.— There are several factors which contribute to 
the production of this disease, viz.: (a) The diet, when 
restricted to certain foods for a comparatively long time, 
^ill produce the disease by disturbing general metabolism, 
the body being deprived of food elements necessary for its 
normal maintenance. (6) Unsanitary conditions, such as 
damp cellars, badly kept kennels, exposure to cold and 
dampness are important predisposing causes, (c) One of 
the most important causes in dogs is ptomain poisoning, 
resulting from eating spoiled meats, fish, etc. (d) There is 
some question as to the disease being produced by infection. 
Infection is, of course, a possible cause. 

Pathology.— Small hemorrhages are found in the tissues 
and organs of the body. These are most noticeable under 
the skin, in the muscles, on mucous and serous membranes, 
in the joints, liver, spleen and kidneys. Along the margin 
of the gums will be found distinct ulcerative processes. 
The gums are dark, almost black, or reddened, and show 
separation from the teeth. Shreds of the membrane may be 
removed easily Tsith the forceps. The spleen is enlarged and 
of a soft consistency. The lymph glands of the mesentery 



SCURVY— SCORBUTUS 329 

are enlarged and congested. Changes in the blood may 
leave it thin and pale in color. 

Symptoms.— Anemia and emaciation are early symptoms 
of the disease. The patient becomes very languid, and does 
not care to exercise or move about. The appetite is sup- 
pressed either partially or completely, and the thirst is 
increased. Marked changes are observed on the visible 
mucous membranes, those of the mouth showing the most 
pronounced lesions. The mucous membrane around the 
margin of the gums becomes discolored red, later dark 
bluish-red, and even almost black. Hemorrhages are present 
in many cases, or the least manipulation of the gums causes 
bleeding. The membranes become swollen and very sensitive 
to the touch. The patient when eating will often stop 
abruptly and show marked pain from the food irritating the 
involved membranes. Distinct ulcerative processes are 
observed in the later stages, the gingival membrane becoming 
separated from the teeth and often the teeth themselv-es 
become loose and fall out. Hemorrhages are also' found on 
the conjunctival membranes, in the nasal passages, and under 
the skin. 

Vomiting is a common symptom. The vomited stomach 
contents are often mixed with blood indicating gastric 
hemorrhage. Bowel discharges may also contain blood. 
The disease is progressive and the symptoms increase in 
intensity until the animal is exhausted or some complication, 
such as septicemia, pneumonia, or extensive hemorrhage 
develops. 

Diagnosis.— A differential diagnosis is necessary in dogs in 
order to distinguish scurvy from ulcerative stomatitis. The 
main points of difference are: (a) The absence of general 
symptoms and hemorrhages in ulcerative stomatitis, (b) 
The localization of the condition in ulcerative stomatitis, 
while in scurvy other parts of the body are affected. In 
long-standing cases of ulcerative stomatitis the differentiation 
may be somewhat difficult. 

Prognosis.— This will depend a great deal upon the progress 
the disease has made. Jf the cause can be removed in the 
very early stages, the i)rogn{)sis is more favorable than in 



330 ANEMIA 

cases where the ulcerative processes are well established. 
When general symptoms of anemia and cachexia are evident 
the prognosis is bad. 

Treatment.— This disease can be readily prevented when a 
variety of food is allowed and good sanitary conditions 
prevail . 

The early indications in the treatment are to change and 
regulate the diet. Give the patient nourishing food, such 
as meat, milk, eggs, etc. Iron preparations (iron and 
quinin citrate, pulverized iron, saccharated carbonate of 
iron) are the most satisfactory for the anemia which is nearly 
always present. Tincture of nux vomica (0.3 to 0.5 daily) 
or tincture of gentian (0.5 to 0.8 twice daily) is useful as a 
tonic. 

Local applications should also be used. Swab the gums 
and other affected mucous membranes of the mouth with 
tincture of myrrh once or twice daily. 

■When hemorrhages are present they must be controlled 
by appropriate treatment. 

ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE BLOOD. 

Filaridce. Metastrongulinoe. 

Several species of animal parasites have been found 
infesting the blood and circulatory organs in small animals. 
The dog is most frequently affected. In several districts of 
the United States, Canada and Mexico, the condition has 
been reported a number of times. The Dirofilaria immitis, 
Hematozoon Lewisi, Hgemostrongylus vasorum and the Spi- 
roptera sanguinolenta are the most important ones founds 

Dirofilaria immitis {Filaria imviitis) .—Occmrence.— This 
blood affection has been observed very commonly in the 
dog, particularly in Japan, China, and in some sections of 
North and South America. The United States is fairly free 
from the infestation, but it is quite possible that many cases 
have been overlooked. 

Etiology.— The Dirofilaria immitis is a long, white worm, 
the male being 12 to 18 cm., and the female 20 to 30 cm. long 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE BLOOD 331 

The posterior portion of the male parasite shows a curvature 
or spiral bending. The female gives birth to living embryo. 

The mature parasites live in heart (right half) in the major- 
ity of infestations. The left heart and bloodvessels harbor 
them in some cases. The number of parasites vary from a 
few to several hundred. They are usually found entangled 
in a round ball-like mass. The females give birth to embryos 
which are each about J mm. long, and are set free in the blood 
in large numbers. The sexually mature parasites may be 
found at the same time in other parts of the body. The 
manner in which infestation takes place has not been fully 
proved. It is probably from the drinking water which 
contains the larvae. These embryos reach the heart before 
they mature. They may be discharged from the animal 
either in the urine, nasal discharge, blood, or with the feces 
and contaminate food or water again. 

Pathogenesis.— The mature parasites located as they are 
in the heart or large vessels produce more or less of a mechan- 
ical disturbance in the action of those organs, or direct inter- 
ference in the flow of blood through them. Formation of 
emboli in the vessels, which often results, brings on various 
complications in part due to necrotic foci in the lungs or other 
organs. The presence of the embryos in the blood ultimately 
leads to anemia with leukocytods. 

Pathology.— On necropsy the right heart is usually found 
to be partially or completely filled with the parasites sur- 
rounded by a coagulated mass of blood. The endocardium 
is found more or less thickened and inflamed. The heart 
is often dilated, the walls thin, and some cases ruptured. 
Very frequently the lungs show small foci of necrosis, or 
nodules in the center of which embryos are found. Similar 
lesions occur in the liver, kidneys, skin and muscular tissues. 
General anemia is present. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms will depend a great deal upon 
the number of adult parasites and embryos infesting the 
circulatory system. When small numbers are present the 
animal may not show any particular manifestations. When 
the number is great, anemia and marked emaciation develop. 
Hemorrhages are proved to appear in the mucous membranes, 
skin, lungs, intestinal tract and other organs. 



332 AXEMIA 

Various complications will be observed from the emboli 
affecting the different functions in the body. The most 
pronounced complicating symptoms are in connection with 
the heart, lungs and brain. The blood shows evidence of 
anemia and leukoc}i:osis. There is absence of fever, and a 
gradual progressive anemia which may continue for several 
months. 

Diagnosis.— A correct diagnosis can be made only by a 
microscopic examination of the blood for embryos. These 
are easily recognized by their shape and peculiar snake-like 
movements. 

Treatment.— Very little can be done in the way of treat- 
ment. Nutritious food and iron preparations are recom- 
mended. Atoxyl in small doses has been used successfully 
to reduce the number of embryos in the blood. 

Complicating symptoms are treated as they develop. 

Hematozoon Lewisi.— This parasite is found infesting the 
circulatory system in much the same manner as the Diro- 
filaria immitis. Dogs are most commonly affected. A micro- 
scopic examination of the blood is necessary in order to 
establish the diagnosis. The embryos attach their heads 
to the cover-glass and move their bodies very rapidly when 
viewed under the microscope. Little is known concerning 
the life history of this parasite. It is supposed to be taken 
into the body from fleas and lice in which the larvae of this 
parasite have been found. 

Treatment is the same as for Dirofilaria immitis. 

Hsemostrongylus vasorum.— This is a fine, thread-like worm 
infesting the right ventricle of the heart and the pulmonary 
artery and its branches. The male parasite is about 13-16 
mm. long, and the female 17-20 mm. It forms small nodules 
in the lining membrane of the vessel wall and thrombi in the 
smaller vessels. The female parasite lays eggs which lodge 
in the finer vessels, which, like the embryos, lead to the 
formation of small nodes. The embryos migrate into the 
bronchi and are coughed up and taken in by other animals. 

Sjrmptoms.— The symptoms are mostly those of a progres- 
sive anemia and are not characteristic. 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE BLOOD 333 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is only made by finding the 
parasites on autopsy or the eggs and embryos in the expecto- 
ration or blood. 

Treatment. —Unsatisfactory . 

Spiroptera sanguinolenta.— This is a small, thread-like 
worm found in different parts of the body, but more particu- 
larly in the heart and large arterial branches. It is of minor 
importance as the infestation is of rare occurrence in small 
animals. The symptoms are those of anemia and heart 
weakness and are not characteristic. A microscopic exami- 
nation or a necropsy is necessary in order to confirm the 
diagnosis. 



CHAPTER II. 
DISEASES OF THE THYROID GLANDS. 

Examination and General Consideration.— Diseases involving 
these glands are of considerable importance in dogs in which 
animals all forms of goiter are found. Other small animals 
are very seldom affected. The two thjToid glands, one on 
either side of the neck, are situated in the upper third of the 
cervical region. They are normally small but easily palpable. 
When diseased they usually grow larger and tend to descend 
doT\Tiward toward the thoracic inlet. The position of the 
diseased glands will vary, therefore, with their size and the 
breed of dog. 

An important thing to be considered in connection T^ith 
the thjToid glands is the presence of small glandules closely 
related to them. These glandules are often found in close 
contact with the th^Toid glands occurring in the adjacent 
tissue or they may be quite a distance removed from them. 
They consist of small, nodular glands, composed of true 
thyroid or lymphoid tissue, and are considered accessory 
glands to. the th;^Toids. Normally they are very small, 
but usually become much enlarged when the thyroid glands 
are involved. These small glandules seem to be closely 
associated with the thyroid glands in function, and will 
replace to a certain degree the secretions necessary, when the 
true glands are diseased or destroyed. 

CONGESTION OF THE THYROID GLANDS. 

At or near the time of puberty the glands are often found 
enlarged; during the estrual periods the same condition is 
commonly observed. This temporary congestion will disap- 
pear in a few days in the majority of cases and the glands 



ACUTE THYROIDITIS 335 

assume their normal size and condition. A temporary con- 
gestion may also occur from collars being too tight, or dogs 
pulling on the leash, which disturbs the circulation in the 
glands. Swelling of one or both glands may result from this 
and last for several days simulating goiter. As soon as the 
cause is removed the circulation will return to its normal 
state and the congestion gradually disappear. Direct 
injuries to the glands are not uncommon and congestion and 
edema result. Examination will often reveal the presence 
of a wound or a contused area. Permanent enlargement of 
one or both glands may result from injuries, due to fibrous 
formation. 

ACUTE THYROIDITIS. 

Definition.— An acute inflammation of one or both thyroid 
glands. This condition has been observed in dogs. 

Etiology.— The majority of cases are secondary to other 
diseases, such as distemper, local infection in the adjacent 
tissue, or from direct injuries. 

Symptoms.— The glands are first noticed to be prominent, 
enlarged, sensitive on palpation, and the local temperature 
elevated. In severe congestion the gland will often show 
pulsation. A differentiation should be made between this 
condition and the various forms of goiter. The sudden 
development, local heat, and marked reaction in the glands 
will assist in making the differentiation. The history of 
the condition following distemper or injuries should also be 
taken into consideration in making the diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— The termination of acute thyroiditis is usually 
favorable. The inflammation subsides and the gland resumes 
its normal function. Some few cases terminate in a degenera- 
tion and suppurative condition which may destroy a part 
or the whole gland. It is possible also to have the condition 
become chronic and produce a firm fibrous growth simulating 
some forms of goiter. 

Treatment.— During the acute stage cold applications 
should be applied either in the form of cold water or ice packs. 
This followed by a hot Priessnitz compress and continued 
until resolution takes place or degeneration and abscess 



336 DISEASES OF THE THYROID GLANDS 

formation occur. Should the function of the gland be 
disturbed for a prolonged period either potassium iodid in 
small doses or thyroid extract has proved to be of consider- 
able value. When abscesses occur they should be opened, 
drainage effected, and an iodin pack applied. 

GOITER. STRUMA. BRONCHOCELE. 

Definition.— A hypertrophy or enlargement of the thyroid 
glands which occurs sporadically. It is very frequent in 
dogs. In some instances goiter is congenital and whole 
litters of puppies are affected. The enlargement of the 
glands in these cases may be of sufficient size to interfere 
seriously ^^ith parturition. Very often the glands will be 
six to ten times larger than normal, seemingly as large as 
the puppy itself. The lobes and isthmus of the glands are 
so intermingled that no distinction can be made between 
them, the whole forming one large mass in the inferior cer\'ical 
region. 

The disease is also acquired in a great many cases, coming 
on at different periods in the development of individual 
animals. 

Occurrence.— The occurrence of goiter in the various breeds 
of dogs seems to be in about the same ratio, although in 
certain districts pointers, bull dogs, and bull terriers, seem 
to be affected in larger numbers than other breeds. 

]Many forms of goiter are recognized in dogs, viz.: (a) 
Parenchymatous; (b) cystic; (c) fibrous; {d) vascular; (e) 
malignant; (/) exophthalmic. 

Parenchymatous Goiter.— Definition.— A diffuse paren- 
chymatous enlargement of the gland with an increase in the 
stroma and a collection of gelatinous colloid material in the 
follicles. 

Occurrence.- This form is by far the most common and 
occurs more frequently in puppies or young dogs. 

Symptoms.— The first symptom noticed is the enlargement 
of one or both thyroid glands. The enlargement may not 
be equal in both glands. One is frequently much larger 
than the other. This form of goiter often develops suddenly 



GOI TERSTR UMA—BRONCHOCELE 337 

and the glands assume enormous proportions. Puppies are 
often born with this particular form or develop it during 
the first few weeks of their lives. In many cases no marked 
symptoms of any general disturbance are observed, the 
animal developing apparently normal except the presence 
of the enlarged thyroid glands. In other cases, when the 
glandular secretion is materially interfered with, cretinism 
and myxedema are prominent symptoms. This is evidenced 
by marked nervous disturbances and degeneration of the 
various tissues in the body. The animal becomes emaciated, 
weak, a mere shadow of its former condition. Young animals 
as a result of this glandular disturbance do not develop 
normally, the head may be larger than normal, and other 
parts of the body undeveloped, or vice versa. Respiratory 
disturbances often result from the enlarged glands pressing 
upon the trachea, or from compression of the vagus and 
sympathetic nerves. The latter condition no doubt accounts 
for the larger number of cases in which labored respiration 
and spasm of the glottis are prominent symptoms. Hemi- 
plegia laryngis is produced in a similar manner by pressure 
on the recurrent nerve. Circulatory irregularities are not so 
common in parenchymatous goiter. Direct examination of 
the glands will reveal the enlargement, its smooth regular 
outline, moderately firm consistency, and absence of local 
heat or pain. The isthmus of the glands can be palpated, 
except when the glands are greatly enlarged. In many 
cases no general symptoms of deranged appetite, elevation 
of temperature, or cachexia will be noticed. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis of goiter in general is quite easy, 
but in some cases it is difficult to make a definite distinction 
between the various forms. Goiter should be differentiated 
from abscess, hematoma, and various cyst formations. This 
can be done as a rule very easily after carefully palpating 
the enlargement. In order to make a positive diagnosis of 
the variety or form of goiter present, it is necessary to 
consider the character of the enlargement, its consistency, 
the condition and age of the animal. Palpation of the glands 
to determine their form, whether regular and smooth, or 
irregular and lobulated, and their consistency, is a very 
22 



338 DISEASES OF THE THYROID GLAfDS 

important means of making the differentiation between the 
various forms of goiter. 

Prognosis.— In parenchymatous goiter most cases recover. 
The glands grow smaller until of normal size or near it, and 
any general sjnoiptoms disappear. However, in cases where 
the glands are enormously enlarged and symptoms of cretin- 
ism and myxedema are present the prognosis is not favorable. 
A recurrence of this form of goiter, while rare, is always 
probable. 

Treatment.— lodin medication both externally and inter- 
nally has proved to be of great value. Some remarkable 
results have been obtained in the rapidity and degree of 
reduction after its use. For internal administration it has 
been definitely proved that small doses give the best results. 
The dose should be regulated somewhat according to the age 
and size of the animal. One-fourth grain^ 0.016 of potassium 
iodid for puppies, or 0.05-0.08 for older animals, given 
once daily, has given the best results. When given in large 
doses there is danger of too rapid depletion of the body and 
paralysis of the heart. These small doses should be continued 
daily for one to three weeks. For external application color- 
less tincture of iodin may be applied. Where staining the 
hair does not matter the regular tincture should be employed. 
An application can be made daily, or every second day. 
Thyroid extract (0.15 daily) has been used with excellent 
results. Surgical interference has not proved successful 
in relieving this form of goiter. Complete unilateral 
thyroidectomy might be tried in case one gland is 
enormously enlarged and the other nearly normal. The 
operation is performed under general anesthesia and strict 
antiseptic precautions. The gland is dissected out carefully 
and multiple ligation of the pedicle is necessary so that the 
tissue will not retract and allow the ligature to slip off. The 
gland is then removed about J inch from the ligature and the 
wound packed with antiseptic gauze for a few days. The 
ligature is then removed cautiously and the wound covered 
with an antiseptic dusting power. It is very important that 
the wound be kept free from infection during the first few 
days, and the ligature kept in position to avoid fatal hemor- 
rhage. 



GOITER—STRUMA—BRONCHOCELE 339 

Cystic Goiter.— Definition.— An enlargement of one or 
both thyroid glands, characterized by the formation of cysts 
which may be single or multiple. In cases of long standing, 
calcification of the cyst wall may take place. The cause of 
cystic goiter has never been clearly proved. When hemor- 
rhage occurs in the gland follicles they are distended, certain 
changes in the contents result, and there is left a more or 
less clear serous fluid. Further, through disturbance in the 
glandular activity, from injury, nervous influences, or hyper- 
emia, the circulation of the glands is abnormal leading to 
extravasation of serum into the follicles which may result 
in a permanent cystic condition. Cysts commonly compli- 
cate parenchymatous goiter. 

Symptoms.— An enlargement of one or both of the thyroid 
glands is the most prominent symptom. Many cases 
develop rather suddenly while others require considerable 
time before the glands reach a sufficient size to become 
noticeable. As a rule, unless complicated with other forms 
of goiter, no general symptoms will be present. Should the 
cystic formation involve both glands it is quite possible that 
the normal function of the glands will be disturbed, then 
general symptoms will result. Pressure on the vagus, sym- 
pathetic, and recurrent nerves may lead to complications 
as in parenchymatous goiter. In the majority of cases the 
course of this goiter is chronic, and aside from the unsightly 
enlargement they produce, the animal will not suffer any 
inconvenience. Examination of the gland by careful palpa- 
tion will reveal the soft, fluctuating swelling, the absence of' 
inflammation, and a consistency differing from other forms of 
goiter. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis can be made positive by the 
examination, and if necessary by the use of an exploring trocar 
to obtain some of the yellowish or clear serous fluid. 

Prognosis.— Favorable when proper and prompt treatment 
is used. Further, as this is in most cases a local condition 
confined to the gland, remedial measures can be applied more 
satisfactorily. 

Treatment.— This is of two kinds, viz,: (a) Medical, and 
(6) surgical. 



340 DISEASES OF THE THYROID GLANDS 

Medical.— Medical treatment in the form of potassium 
iodid (0.03-0.06) is of value to assist in replacing the loss 
in the normal secretion of the gland, especially when both 
glands are extensively involved. Thyroid extract in 0.15 
doses daily can also be used. 

Surgical.— This, consists in either aspirating the serous 
fluid from the cystic follicles and injecting a small amount 
of Lugol's solution to stop further filling up, or opening the 
cysts and packing the cavity temporarily with iodin gauze. 
After-treatment consists in the use of antiseptics. The wound 
will heal leaving but slight enlargement. 

Fibrous Goiter.— Definition.— An enlargement usually of 
one of the thyroid glands (rarely both) characterized by a 
hypertrophy of the stroma and an atrophy of the glandular 
tissue. It is most frequent in old animals. This form of 
goiter results in most cases from injuries, acute and chronic 
inflammation, and in a few cases no doubt from some of the 
other forms of goiter. The interstitial tissue is gradually 
increased exerting abnormal pressure on the gland substance, 
which leads to pressure atrophy. 

Symptoms.— The presence of the enlargement confined in 
most cases to one gland. Occasionally both glands will be 
found affected. The size of the enlargement varies greatly 
from very slight to extreme thickening of the entire intersti- 
tial tissue. No general symptoms are observed in the major- 
ity of cases as it is confined to one gland and of long standing. 
When both glands are extensively involved, interfering with 
the function of the glands, emaciation, weakness and general 
cachexia may be prominent symptoms. Respiratory and 
other disturbances are only observed when the enlargement 
presses on the trachea or nerves. 

On palpation of the gland it will be found exceedingly 
firm, resistant, smooth in outline, non-inflammatory, and 
non-sensitive. The isthmus of the gland is easily determined. 

Diagnosis.— This should not be difficult as the outline of 
the enlargement and the hard, firm consistency, with the 
other symptoms, are characteristic of fibrous goiter. 

Prognosis.— Favorable. Many cases, when not exceed- 
ingly large, are not treated as they cause but little incon- 



GOITER— ST R UMA—BRONCHOCELE 341 

venience to the animal. Reduction in the size of the gland 
is possible, or it can be extirpated. 

Treatment.— Injections of iodin into the gland substance 
have given good results. Inject iodin tincture (2.0 to 5.0) 
into the gland being careful to avoid introducing the needle 
directly into a bloodvessel. The needle should be inserted 
unattached to determine this fact before the injection is 
made. The injections may be repeated after the acute 
symptoms subside. It is sometimes necessary to make 
several applications before reduction is complete. Extirpa- 
tion of the enlarged gland is recommended when of consid- 
erable size and the fellow gland normal. The operation is 
performed in the same manner as in parenchymatous goiter. 
When both glands are enlarged and general symptoms of 
athyrea are present, potassium iodid, or thyroid extract in 
small doses is recommended. 

Vascular Goiter.— Definition.— An enlargement of one or 
both thyroid glands, characterized by dilatation of the 
bloodvessels without the formation of new glandular tissue, 
and the absence of any marked general symptoms. This 
condition is not to be confused with exophthalmic goiter. 
It is the result of a local dilatation of the bloodvessels supply- 
ing the glands and may originate from the same causes as 
those producing congestion and inflammation of the glands. 
The exact etiology is not known, but has been observed as a 
sequel to distemper, prolonged estrual periods, and sexual 
diseases. 

Symptoms.— One or both glands will be found enlarged and 
engorged with blood. Distinct pulsation of the arteries 
and even the glands can be seen at a distance. In some cases 
rupture of some of the vessels results, the blood accumulating 
in the adjacent tissues, producing an extensive enlargement 
along the course of the neck. The symptoms, as a rule, 
subside after a few weeks and may recur at more or less 
regular intervals. Many cases recover spontaneously. Very 
little general disturbance is present. 

Diagnosis.— The dilatation of the arteries and engorgement 
of the gland will easily differentiate it from all forms of goiter, 
except exophthalmic. In exophthahnic goiter, tachycardia. 



342 DISEASES OF THE THYROID GLANDS 

and nervous disturbances present should make the cHnical 
picture complete and different from vascular goiter. 

Prognosis. — Complete recovery is possible in most cases. 
In the milder forms it often disappears without any treat- 
ment. 

Treatment.— An examination of the animal should be made 
carefully and if any general disturbance is observed it should 
be treated. Owing to the increased activity of the gland 
locally, iodin preparations are contraindicated. Small doses 
of tincture of opium (0.2 to 0.4 daily) can be tried. 

Should the glandular activity become too pronounced, as 
indicated by hyperthyrea, ligation of a portion of the blood 
supply to the gland would be indicated. However, in the 
majority of cases this is not necessary as the symptoms will 
subside in the course of a few weeks. 

Malignant Goiter.— Definition.— An enlargement of one or 
both thyroid glands due to a malignant neoplasm. The 
malignant growth is either a sarcoma or carcinoma. The 
growth tends to invade the adjacent tissues and lymph glands, 
or even to the extent of involving secondarily the lymph 
glands of the thoracic cavity, the lungs, and other organs 
and tissues. The condition may become generalized. It is 
found mostly in old animals. 

Symptoms.— The malignant growth may be confined to one 
gland, but in many cases occurs in both. When the enlarge- 
ment once begins, its development is quite rapid, and is 
characterized by an uneven, irregular form of the gland, the 
presence of acute inflammatory symptoms, very sensitive, 
and in some cases areas of degeneration and abscess forma- 
tion are found. Within a short time general symptoms 
are prominent. Emaciation and general cachexia develop 
rapidly. The rapidity of its development and the fact that 
it is usually an old animal affected would assist in making the 
diagnosis. 

Diagnosis.— This is made by careful examination. The 
characteristic enlargement and condition of the gland with 
secondary involvement of adjacent lymph glands, together 
with the general symptoms of emaciation and cachexia, and 



GOITER— STRUMA— BRONCHOCELE 343 

the age of the animal, should make the differentiation from 
other forms of goiter comparatively easy. 

Prognosis. —Unfavorable. 

Treatment.— But little can be expected of treatment. In 
the early stages, before involvement of the adjacent tissues 
takes place, extirpation of the gland may relieve the condition 
for a time but no permanent results can be hoped for. 

Exophthalmic Goiter.— Basedow's Disease. Graves's Dis- 
ease.— Defmition.— A disease characterized by exophthalmos, 
functional disturbances of the circulatory system, and more 
or less enlargement of the thyroid gland. This disease is 
not of frequent occurrence in animals, but is found occa- 
sionally in the dog. 

Etiology.— The exact etiological factor has been in dispute, 
but is evidently a pure neurosis as indicated by some of the 
more recent investigations made. It has also been claimed 
that it is due to a central lesion in the medulla oblongata. 
A certain amount of evidence has been produced to partially 
substantiate this claim. The fact that the primary result 
of the disease is a hyperthyrea would indicate that it 
might be a special involvement of the glands. However, this 
has not been proved and the best evidence seems to prove 
the former etiological factor the most likely. 

Pathology.— On examination the thyroid glands show en- 
largement, congestion, the production of newly formed 
tubular spaces and a collection of mucinous fluid. They 
show every evidence of hyperactivity. 

Pathogenesis.— It is quite important from every standpoint 
to note that this form of goiter is a primary hyperthyrea 
while most forms are just the opposite (athyrea). The 
development of the disease is the result of the increased 
secretion of the thyroid glands leading to a general toxic 
condition. The iodothyroidin content of the secretion is 
greatly increased which no doubt accounts for the intoxica- 
tion. 

From an experimental standpoint much the same condition 
can be produced in animals by administering large and con- 
tinued doses of thyroid extract. Further, when thyroid 
extract or iodin is administered in exophthalmic goiter the 
condition becomes rapidly aggravated. 



344 DISEASES OF THE THYROID GLANDS 

Symptoms.— Both the acute and chronic forms have been 
observed. In the acute form the disease develops very 
rapidly. The following symptoms are most prominent: 

(a) Exophthalmos .—A prominence of the eyes which may 
be unilateral or bilateral. This symptom is readily recog- 
nized by the protrusion of the eyeballs, and the prominence 
of the sclera of the eye. The lids do not cover the eye 
completely. It is important to note that in some breeds of 
dogs the eyes are very prominent and this should not be 
mistaken for exophthalmos. The normal sight is retained 
in most cases. In severe cases it is possible to have a pan- 
ophthalmitis which would destroy the sight temporarily or 
permanently. Ulceration of the cornea is common. 

(b) Enlargement of the Thyroid Glayids.Some enlarge- 
ment of the glands is present in practically all cases. The 
common expression "inward goiter" has been given to this 
condition when the glands are not much enlarged and the 
other symptoms are prominent. The enlargement may be 
general or only one lobe affected. 

(c) Tachycardia. — The heart action is rapid and the pulse- 
rate is usually so much increased that it cannot be counted 
accurately. The action of the heart at first is regular, but 
during the later stages of the disease becomes very irregular. 
The throbbing of the heart is often so intense as to shake the 
animars body. Acute dilatation of the heart with dyspnea, 
cough, etc., is a prominent sjTuptom in the later stages. 

Distention of the arteries and pulsation of the entire gland 
is easily seen from a distance. On palpation a distinct 
throbbing can be felt. The gland may be more or less firm, 
or soft and flabby, depending on the degree of involvement. 

(d) Tremors.— TiemoTS or trembling of the muscles is 
often observed. General sjonptoms of restlessness, whining 
and crying, and spasms are present in some cases. Emacia- 
tion comes on rapidly, and general exhaustion is very 
common. 

The chronic form is characterized by similar symptoms 
but milder in character and lasting for several weeks or 
months. 



GOITER— STRUMA— BRONCHOCELE 345 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is not difficult when all the 
symptoms are taken into consideration. A differential 
diagnosis should be made from the other forms of goiter, 
but aside from vascular goiter this should be easy. In 
vascular goiter the general symptoms are usually absent. 

Prognosis.— Not considered favorable. Some cases recover 
rapidly under proper treatment. 

Treatment.— Owing to the hyperthyrea present, iodin 
preparations and th;yToid extract are contraindicated. The 
treatment indicated is the reduction of the hyperactivity 
of the thyroid glands, and regulating the heart action. The 
h}T)eractivity of the glands is best controlled by ligation of a 
portion of the blood supply to them which will immediately 
stop the function of that particular part and reduce the total 
volume of secretion. It is recommended that the anterior 
arteries be ligated. This should be done under strict anti- 
septic precautions and morphin anesthesia. Immediate 
good results are obtained in many cases. Extirpation of a 
portion of the gland is often done in the human subject but 
is not so practicable in animals. The heart action should 
be controlled by small doses of digitalis fluidextract (0.1 to 
0.2 twice daily), or aconite tincture (0.1 to 0.2 two or three 
times daily). The animal should be kept in a quiet place. 
Other conditions arising must be treated accordingly. 



PART VI. 
DISEASES OF METABOLISM. 



CHAPTER I. 
DISEASES OF METABOLISM. 

DIABETES. 

Definition.— Diabetes is a disease ordinarily characterized 
by an excessive secretion of urine. It occurs in two forms: 
(a) Diabetes insipidus; (b) diabetes mellitus. 

Diabetes Insipidus.— Definition.— xA chronic disease charac- 
terized by the passage of a large volume of urine of a low 
specific gravity and containing no albumin or sugar. There 
should be a distinction made between diabetes insipidus and 
polyuria. The latter is a symptom of some other disease. 
In polyuria, often confused with diabetes insipidus, the 
volume of urine passed is not constant. The disease is 
evidently a functional disturbance of the kidneys in which 
large quantities of water are voided and equal amounts taken 
into the system. The solid content of the urine is naturally 
reduced. 

Occurrence.— Diabetes insipidus is not observed very often, 
but perhaps the larger number of cases is found in dogs. 
Polyuria is frequently seen in rabbits from improper feeding. 
Certain foods tend to produce it, which, if continued, may 
result in a chronic condition resembling diabetes insipidus. 
There is no doubt but that it is often not diagnosed. 

Etiology.— Several things have been recorded as having to 
do with the cause of diabetes insipidus: (a) Observed dur- 



348 DISEASES OF METABOLISM 

ing the convalescent stage of acute diseases (distemper) . (6) 
Accompanying diseases of the nervous system, such as 
tumors of the brain, lesions of the medulla, cerebral hemor- 
rhage, inflammation of the membranes of the brain or spinal 
cord, (c) Subjection to cold; drinking large quantities of 
cold water have been thought to cause the disease, {d) 
Trauma of the liver; vertebral column, {e) The administra- 
tion of diuretics either when given in large doses or con- 
tinued over a long period of time in small doses will produce 
it. (/) There is a possibility that the disease is of infectious 
origin; however, this has never been proved. 

The production of diabetes insipidus is no doubt due to 
a vasomotor disturbance of the renal vessels resulting in a 
great increase in the secretion of urine. The above men- 
tioned conditions lead to this disturbance through direct 
irritation, or to functional irritation of the center in the 
medulla, which brings about a constant state of renal con- 
gestion. 

Pathology.— The necropsy findings are unimportant in the 
majority of cases. Quite often very slight or no changes in 
the tissues are found. In some cases the kidneys are enlarged 
and hyperemic. Dilation of the ureters and pelvis of the 
kidneys is occasionally seen. Certain changes will also 
be found in the nervous system, liver and lungs. The 
musculature is pale and anemic in advanced cases. 

Symptoms.— The disease may come on suddenly resulting 
from irritation to the nervous system or kidneys, or it may 
be gradual in its development. In rabbits it may develop 
suddenly after feeding mouldy food, etc. Many cases are 
not observed until the symptoms of anemia and general 
cachexia are present. Two very prominent symptoms are: 
(a) Copious secretion of urine; (b) intense thirst. 

(a) A large quantity of urine is passed each day; in dogs 
as much as two to four liters in twenty-four hours, and in 
rabbits one-fourth the quantity. The urine has a low 
specific gravity (1.001 to 1.003), is colorless, almost odorless, 
and voided without any difficulty except when the condition 
is accompanied by a catarrhal inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the urethra or bladder. The urine contains 



DIABETES 349 

neither albumin nor sugar. Normal solids are very much 
reduced in quantity. 

(6) The animal will show intense thirst; large quantities 
of water are consumed each day, in dogs as much as four to 
ten liters. Often animals mil show a vitiated thirst and 
will drink contaminated water or even urine. The appetite 
is usually normal during the first stages, but gradually 
diminishes and becomes variable. During the later stages 
the appetite may be lost entirely, the animal becoming 
emaciated, and various complications develop. The tem- 
perature remains normal until the very latest stages when 
it may be subnormal. 

Course.— When polyuria results from the food it may 
disappear in a short time following the change in food. This 
has been observed particularly in rabbits. In cases of real 
diabetes insipidus the course is chronic, the disease lasting 
one or two years. 

Diagnosis.— A differential diagnosis must be made between 
diabetes insipidus, polyuria and diabetes mellitus. Polyuria 
is distinguished from diabetes insipidus by the sjTiiptoms 
disappearing when the food is changed. The s\anptoms of 
polyuria are also more variable. Diabetes mellitus is dis- 
tinguished by the increased specific gravity of the urine and 
the sugar content. 

Prognosis.— AYhile in polyuria the prognosis is usually 
favorable, in real diabetes insipidus it is bad, the disease 
terminating fatally after a prolonged course. 

Treatment.— An investigation of the food should be made, 
and if found of poor quality, containing moulds or other 
objectionable substances, it should be discontinued and other 
foods substituted. Regulation of the diet is an important 
factor during the early stages of the disease. Limiting the 
water supply does not have any appreciable effect on true 
diabetes insipidus, but if it is a simple polyuria it would be 
well to restrict the patient to a small amount of water. 

Medical treatment has not been satisfactory. Small doses 
of valerianate of zinc (0.2 to 0.4) daily, may be tried; or 
vasoconstrictors used, such as fluidextract of hydrastis, or 
fluidextract of ergot. Stomachics and general tonics may be 



350 DISEASES OF METABOLISM 

of some value, tincture nux vomica (0.3 to 0.6), once or 
twice daily. 

Diabetes Mellitus.— Definition.— Diabetes mellitus is a 
chronic, nutritive disorder in which grape-sugar accumulates 
in the blood and is excreted in the urine. The condition may 
be permanent or occur periodically. It is generally con- 
sidered that in order for a case to be true diabetes mellitus, 
the sugar eliminated must be grape-sugar, and it must extend 
over a rather long period of time. 

Occurrence.— The disease is not very common in animals. 
A few cases have been found in dogs. The cat and rabbit 
are very seldom affected. 

Etiology.— The exact etiology of diabetes mellitus is not 
known. It is quite evident that several factors may have to 
do with the production of the disease. Nervous diseases, 
especially those of the central nervous system, and diseases 
of the liver and pancreas probably produce the larger number 
of cases. The pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus is not quite 
clear, but the condition may be brought about by a disturb- 
ance of the liver or pancreas, in which the grape-sugar taken 
into the body is not converted into glycogen but taken up as 
grape-sugar by the circulation and eliminated in this form. 

Pathology.— Many cases present no anatomical changes. 
There may be hemorrhages in the nervous system, tumor 
formations, etc. Very often fatty degeneration of the liver 
is present. The pancreas may be enlarged by connective 
tissue proliferation and an atrophy of the glandular substance. 
The other structures show emaciation and evidences of 
cachexia due no doubt to the chronicity of the disease. 

Symptoms.— Until the patient shows emaciation, notwith- 
standing good appetite, the disease is usually not recognized. 
The general symptoms are: The animal fatigues easily, 
becomes dull and listless and does not move about in a normal 
way, shows increased thirst and appetite. The mucous 
membrane of the mouth becomes dry, and gingivitis is often 
present. The most characteristic symptoms are found in 
connection with the urinary organs. The urine is increased 
in amount, sometimes double the normal quantities voided, 
is pale, colorless, of a sweetish odor (aceton) and acid in 



DIABETES 351 

reaction. The specific gravity is increased (1040 to 1060). 
An examination of the urine should be made to determine the 
sugar content. From 3 to 5 per cent, of sugar has been 
found. The amount of sugar content will depend to quite 
an extent on the kind of food given the patient. The 
feeding of carbohydrates materially increases the per cent, 
while nitrogenous foodstuffs diminish it. (For testing for 
sugar in the urine, see Diseases of the Kidneys.) 

As the disease progresses certain other symptoms are 
uniformly present. Opacity of one or both cornea (keratitis) , 
or of the lens (cataract) is often found, gradually producing 
blindness. Other portions of the eye may also be affected. 
Ulceration of the cornea has been observed. Secondary 
involvement of the respiratory organs takes place in the form 
of a catarrhal inflammation of the larynx, trachea, bronchial 
tubes and lungs. Pneumonia and gangrene of the lungs may 
develop. Cardiac weakness is noted during the last stages. 
Other symptoms, such as vomiting, diarrhea and constipation, 
may be seen. Ulceration of the skin, falling out of the hair, 
found in some cases, indicate the general disturbance in 
metabolism. During the last stages the patient becomes very 
weak, emaciated, cachectic, and dies from exhaustion. 

Course.— The disease is characterized by its chronicity and 
may last from several months to two years. Sugar is some- 
times present in the urine for a long time before the disease 
is recognized. 

Diagnosis.— This disease should be differentiated from 
diabetes insipidus. In the former the presence of sugar in 
the urine, the gradual emaciation and the retention of the 
appetite would be sufficient to make a positive diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— Is always unfavorable. The disease is a 
progressive one, in which complications follow each other 
making the condition hopeless. 

Treatment.— Very little can be accomplished except by 
regulation of the diet and limiting the carbohydrates fed. 
Dogs should be fed on a diet rich in fats and proteids (eggs, 
fat meat, or oat meal with fat meat). Large doses of sodium 
bicarbonate should be given (1.5 to 2.5) daily to reduce the 
acidosis which is apt to develop. The amount may be 



352 DISEASES OF METABOLISM 

increased if necessary. Other alkaline agents, such as 
Carlsbad salts and ammonium carbonate, may also be 
administered. Tincture of opium in large doses (0.6 to 1.0) 
once or twice daily is highly recommended as it tends to 
reduce the amount of sugar. The treatment at best can only 
bring about temporary relief, and no permanent results can 
be hoped for. 

It is important that the patient be kept quiet and its 
general strength maintained. 

OBESITY. 

Definition. —An excessive fat accumulation in the body 
which may be general throughout the entire organism, or 
confined to certain localized areas, such as under the skin. 
The condition is very commonly observed in small animals, 
particularly in dogs. Certain breeds, especially the smaller, 
are most subject. Castrated animals, especially if castrated 
after maturity, tend to become obese. 

Etiology.— One of the chief factors in the production of 
obesity is the taking in of larger quantities of food elements 
than are utilized in the body. Pet animals which are fed 
highly nutritious foods (candies, cakes, etc.) and are not 
given sufficient exercise become over-fat. It often happens 
that an animal will accumulate fat rapidly when only the 
normal amount of food is allowed. This occurs in most cases 
from insufficient exercise, the elements taken in not being 
utilized. The feeding of large quantities of carbohydrates, 
or restricting the diet to substances containing a large 
proportion of such elements will bring it about. The tem- 
perament of animals no doubt has also some influence. 
Animals having a phlegmatic temperament tend to become 
obese through insufficient activity and exercise. Castration 
of animals changes their disposition, tends to make them 
phlegmatic and lazy, and therefore fit subjects for the 
development of this condition. Should animals be castrated 
before maturity this tendency for obesity is not so noticeable. 

Anemia by reducing muscular energy may cause obesity, 
providing no organic lesion is present and the proper amount 



OBESITY 353 

of food is allowed. The majority of cases can be ascribed 
to hyperalimentation and lack of exercise, rather than any 
constitutional disturbance of metabolism. Through the 
disturbance of glandular secretions (thyroid) and its regula- 
tion by certain organs (adrenals, pancreas, etc.) oxidation 
is diminished and constitutional obesity may develop. 

Pathology.— No anatomical changes are noted except a 
general accumulation of fat under the skin, in the muscles, 
liver, around the heart and other organs. The changes in 
appearance of the organs and tissue are due to the fatty 
deposits. 

Symptoms.— The condition is characterized by the rapid 
increase in weight, the change in contour of the body, and 
in the disposition of the animal. The most common loca- 
tions of observable fatty deposits are in the panniculus 
adiposus, neck, shoulders and abdomen. Palpation of the 
parts will reveal the condition. The animal shows lassitude, 
fatigues easily, and often shows dyspnea on exercise. This 
is no doubt the result of impeded action of the organs 
from the fatty accumulations. Later, during the progress 
of the condition, disturbances of other organs and functions 
will develop. Digestive disturbances are often quite pro- 
nounced and the heart action may be interfered with. The 
mucous membranes are pale, showing anemia. 

Course. —The course is chronic. Mild degrees of obesity 
do not interfere particularly with the animals' health or use- 
fulness. 

Prognosis.— Depends a great deal upon the extent of the 
condition. If the diet can be regulated and restricted, the 
prognosis is quite favorable. In pet animals, however, it is 
very difficult to restrict the diet as the owner will invariably 
break the rules laid down in this regard. 

Treatment.— Reduction in the amount of food, system- 
atic and forced exercise are important. At first the reduc- 
tion in food should be slight but continuous until only a 
sufficient amount is allowed to maintain the strength of the 
patient. The composition of the foodstuffs given is also 
im})()rtant. Limit the amount of carbohydrates and fats 
and allow a greater proportion of nitrogenous foods. A 
23 



354 DISEASES OF METABOLISM 

reduction in the amount of drinking water should be 
attempted. 

The medical treatment consists in administering small doses 
of magnesium sulphate (5.0 to 12.0) daily, or Carlsbad salts 
(4.0 to 10.0) once or twice daily. Care should be taken to 
avoid a too severe laxative action over a long period of time. 

Thyroid extract is of value in increasing the oxidation of 
fats. Thyroidinum depuratum (0.2 to 0.75), or iodo- 
thyrin (0.1 to 0.2) administered once daily has given 
the best results. The proteid food elements should be 
increased slightly when these medicinal agents are adminis- 
tered. Complications, should the}' arise, are given appropri- 
ate treatment. 

GOUT. PODAGRA. ARTHRITIS URICA. 

Definition.— A disturbance of nutrition with an excess of 
uric acid in the blood. It is characterized clinicalh^ by 
attacks of acute arthritis, a gradual accumulation of sodium 
biurate in and adjacent to the articulations, and with the 
development of irregular constitutional symptoms. The con- 
dition may involve the internal organs, or both the organs 
and the articulations. 

Occurrence.— Old dogs are most commonly affected. 
Birds, especially chickens, pheasants and pigeons, are also 
common sufferers. Experience has shown that it is far more 
common in fowls than in any of the other small animals. 

Etiology.— The real factors in the production of gout are 
not definitely known. The following, probably predisposing 
causes, are the most important: (a) The diet evidently 
plays an important role in the production of the disease. 
Foods rich in albumin, particularly nucleoproteids, seem to 
favor the development of the condition. Chickens and other 
birds when fed on meat, and meat scraps, are often found with 
the disease. Feeding offal from slaughter houses has the 
same effect. (6) Certain chemical substances, such as lead, 
chromic acid, corrosive sublimate, carbolic acid, acetone, 
etc., seem to have some effect in bringing on the disease, 
(c) It may be due to the change in the metabolic processes. 



GOUT— PODAGRA—ARTHRITIS URICA 355 

(d) Fungi on grains and grasses have been found to be the 
cause in fowls, (e) Diseases of the kidneys and ureters, in 
which there is an interference in the ehmination of the uric 
acid compounds, have proved to be important factors in its 
production. (/) Lack of exercise, confinement of the animals 
or birds, together with the feeding of highly nitrogenous 
foods are no doubt the cause of quite a number of cases of 
gout. Older dogs, and the larger breeds of chickens are most 
commonly affected. 

Pathogenesis.— The development of gout is probably due 
to an increase in the production of uric acid, and an inhibition 
in the elimination of urates, which allows its accumulation 
in the blood, and in certain cases to be deposited in connec- 
tion with the tissues. Other theories have been advanced 
for the development of the disease and have supporters. It 
is possible also to have the disease develop in cases when 
there is no increase in the formation of uric acid, but other 
diseases being present to interfere with the elimination of the 
uric acid compounds. 

Pathology.— The characteristic lesions found in articular 
gout are enlargement of the joints of the toes, or wings, and 
a chalky-like deposit found in the joint proper or in the 
adjacent tissue. Examination of the bone-marrow, and the 
ligaments and tendons around the joint will often reveal 
the same condition. Several joints may be found affected. 
In visceral gout, the §erous membranes of the cavities, the 
pericardium, air sacs, and the liver are covered with small 
nodules containing the same white chalky material. The 
kidneys contain small white foci, and the ureters are often 
found filled with a white, pasty mass. Examination of this 
material under the microscope will reveal the crystals of 
sodium biurate. 

Symptoms.— The first indications of the condition are 
usually enlargement of one or more joints, difficulty in 
walking about, and lameness. The joints most commonly 
enlarged are the wing joints (birds), and the metatarsal and 
phalangeal joints in dogs and birds. The animal will stand 
quietly and refuse to move, but when forced to do so shows 
considerable pain and lameness. Fowls often assunie a 



356 DISEASES OF METABOLISM 

crouching position standing on one limb or shifting from one 
leg to the other. Birds will walk or flap their ^^dngs with a 
minimum use of muscles owing to the pain induced. Exami- 
nation of the wings will show enlargement of one or more 
joints. At first the swellings are soft and sensitive, but 
later become more defined, firmer and not so painful. The 
size of the nodules T\ill vary in different birds but is usually 
from that of a pea to a hickory nut. Considerable deformity 
of the joints of the wings and limbs may be present. The 
toes are often spread apart from the enlargement. In some 
cases the joints become anchylosed, while in others degenera- 
tion takes place with necrosis and a discharge of a whitish- 
yellow soft mass. In the latter case there will be an ulcera- 
tive process left which often exposes the joint. Small 
nodules are found in other locations in the skin, muscles, 
and tendons. The general s}TQptoms of rough plumage, 
pendent wings, paleness of the comb and wattles, and general 
emaciation develop gradually. The bird ^dll frequently die 
from exhaustion. 

Dogs show enlargement of the joints of the toes, meta- 
tarsus ribs, etc. Lameness and stiffness are quite prominent 
sjrmptoms. A careful examination should be made in all 
cases. Internal or visceral gout will not be recognized except 
when accompanied by enlargement of the joints. 

Course.— The disease is practically always chronic. A few 
cases have been recorded of the acute form. The disease 
develops irregularly from one joint to another and therefore 
runs a protracted course. 

Diagnosis.— The characteristic symptoms of enlargement 
of several joints, microscopic examination of the contents of 
the nodules, and chemical examination vdW make the diag- 
nosis positive. 

Tie^tment.— Dietetic— Yoods rich in nitrogenous sub- 
stances should be withlield. If necessary reduce the total 
feed ration for a few days to a week. 

Medical.— Alkaline agents, such as sodium bicarbonate 
should be used freely in the drinking water of the fowls. 
Give dogs 1.5 to 2.0 two or three times daily. The alkaline 
preparations will assist in the elimination of the deposited 



FEATHER EATING— FEATHER PULLING IN BIRDS 357 

urates. Piperazin is highly recommended to prevent the 
development of the urates in the tissues (chickens, 0.2 to 
1.0; pigeons, 0.1 to 0.4; dogs, 0.5 to 1.0). Small doses are 
to be given three times daily and continued for several 
days. Internal administration of sodium salicylate has been 
tried with fairly good results. Local applications of menthol, 
or salicylic acid should be used. Effect a solution and apply 
to affected joint on absorbent cotton. When the nodules 
become large they should be opened, curetted and an anti- 
septic pack applied. 

FEATHER EATING. FEATHER PULLING IN BIRDS. 

A condition observed very commonly in caged birds, 
canaries and parrots, but also in chickens, turkeys and 
pigeons. 

Etiology. — (a) It may be the result of improper food. 
Feeding the same materials for a long period, or foods in which 
there is a deficiency of certain nutritive elements is a cause. 
Confinement of birds in close quarters predispose to it, 
partly through lack of exercise, and partly to a narrowing 
of the feed ration. (6) It is often considered a vice or habit. 
Fighting or picking at each other starts the vice, (c) Results 
from skin diseases, especially from parasitic conditions (lice, 
fleas, mange mites). The irritation from the parasite leads 
to picking at the skin and feathers. Feathers will drop out 
as a result of certain diseased conditions. 

Symptoms.— Birds are observed to be pulhng out their 
own feathers or of those confined with them. Bald spots will 
be noticed on different parts of the body. Often large areas 
are denuded. Careful observation of a flock reveals the 
situation. In skin diseases the feathers fall out which can 
easily be distinguished from feather pulling. The skin 
lesions will assist in making the differentiation. 

Treatment.— Birds confined, especially chickens, turkeys 
and pigeons, should be given freer range. Complete change 
of food will have an important bearing on overcoming the 
condition. Feed plenty of oyster shell, bone meal, meat 
scrap, dried blood, etc., with green foods to supply the 



358 DISEASES OF METABOLISM 

elements lacking. Parrots and canaries are difficult to relieve 
from the habit. Change in the food, with plenty of green 
materials will often help. Examine them carefully to be 
sure they are free from lice, or other parasites. Bitter solu- 
tions applied to the feathers may stop it. Feather eating 
is difficult to control, but change of food as described above, 
and the administration of small doses of apomorphin hydro- 
chlorid (0.0005-0.001) have proved to be of value in a number 
of cases. 



CHAPTER 11. 

DISEASES OF METABOLISM AFFECTING 
PRIMARILY THE BONES. 

RACHITIS. RICKETS. 

Definition.— A disease of young animals, characterized by 
impaired nutrition of the entire body and disturbances and 
changes in the growth of tt^e bones leading to marked 
deformity. 

Occurrence.— The disease is rather widespread, appearing 
in nearly all countries. Animals in some countries are very 
commonly affected, while in others the disease is not so 
prevalent. Young animals, as a rule, become affected during 
the first few weeks of life, or at about w^eaning time. The 
condition is observed more commonly in dogs than in any 
of the other small animals. Cats and rabbits are not very 
often affected. Fow4s occasionally^ suffer from the disease, 
especially chickens and pigeons. It is commoner in the 
larger breeds of dogs and fowls, perhaps due to their more 
rapid growth during early life. 

Etiology.— Various factors have been given as the cause of 
rachitis : (a) Due to a deficiency of lime salts in the organism. 
This is no doubt one of the most important causes of the 
condition, as it develops most frequently in the breeds that 
grow rapidly, and at a time in the animal's life when there is 
apt to be a deficiency in the amount of lime salts ingested. 
Clinical and experimental evidence tend to prove the accuracy 
of this statement, (b) Improper assimilation of lime salts 
due to a lack in the acid content of the gastric juice preventing 
the lime salts from being dissolved and consequently not 
absorbed. Foods rich in potassium salts reduce the hydro- 
chloric acid content in the stomach leadinii: to an insufficient 



360 DISEASES OF METABOLISM 

solution or absorption of the lime salts, (c) Digestive 
disturbances (gastric and intestinal catarrh) reduce the 
amount of lime salts absorbed by increasing the normal 
elimination of calcium compounds from the intestines. In 
young animals this condition often occurs at the time of 
weaning when the character of the food is suddenly changed. 
(d) Inflammatory conditions of the bones in which the blood- 
vessels are enlarged and the circulation increased preventing 
the depositing of the lime salts in the new bone tissue. This 
process keeps the lime salts in solution instead of being 
deposited in their normal manner, (e) The possibility of 
infection having to do with the production of rachitis has 
been considered, but not proved. Various toxic agents 
(poisons) will bring about a disturbance in the function of 
the normal metabolic processes in the body and possibly 
bring on the condition or predispose to it. (/) Absence of 
sunlight, dark, damp and unsanitar}^ cellars are no doubt 
predisposing causes. Heredity has been mentioned also as 
having some influence in the development of the disease. 
It is quite evident that the exact etiological factor in the 
production of rachitis has not yet been determined. 

Pathology.— The deformity occurring in rachitis is found 
mainly in connection with the long bones. The diaphyses 
of the bones are shortened, softened, become curved. The 
epiphyses are thickened, more or less spongy, and much 
enlarged. The bones are much softer than normal and have 
the consistency of decalcified bone. They can be cut easily 
with a knife. The periosteum is thickened, reddened and 
when removed from the bones may include some of the bone 
substance. In many cases the interior of the bones is soft 
and the canal abnormally large. The short bones are found 
spongy and easily separated. Marked deformity occurs in 
the skull bones which are often separated. The patient in 
general will show evidences of malnutrition. 

Symptoms.— During the early stages of the disease, before 
deformity of the bones is present, there are gastric and 
intestinal disturbances (catarrh), and evidences of mal- 
nutrition. Weakness, loss of appetite, diarrhea and tendency 



RACHl riS— RICKETS 361 

for bloating are observed in the early stages. Very often 
the disease is not noted until the change in the form of the 
bones begins. Deformity appears in various places. The 
bones of the head and face show a bulging which gives the 
animal a peculiar appearance. The limb bones show curva- 
ture and enlargement at the joints. Palpation along the 
ribs at the attachment of the bones to the cartilage will reveal 
small, rounded enlargements. Twisting and curvature of 
the spine are quite commonly observed. The teeth become 
loose and displaced, the gums soft and spong}^ and bleed 
easily. Deformity of other bones may be present. General 
emaciation, weakness and irregular development of the 
bones, with marked gastric and intestinal disturbances are 
prominent symptoms. 

Course.— The course of rachitis is nearly always chronic, 
lasting for several months. Occasionally the condition runs 
an acute course when complications are present. 

Prognosis.— When the disease is observed early and treated, 
the prognosis is rather favorable. After there is marked 
deformity and evidences of emaciation and malnutrition 
very little can be hoped for. 

Treatment.— The first consideration in the treatment should 
be the diet. Dogs should be allowed plent}^ of meat with 
the addition of ground bone. In birds meat scraps and ground 
bone seem to produce the best results. Gastric and intestinal 
catarrh should be treated, if present, by alkalies and mild 
laxatives. The lime deficiency must be relieved by the 
administration of lime salts. Syrup of calcium lactophos- 
phate has been very satisfactory for this purpose (dogs, 8.0- 
12.0; chickens, 1.0-2.0). This should be given twice daily 
and continued for a few weeks. Chalk (calcium carbonate), 
or calcium phosphate is also to be recommended in doses 
of 1.0 to 8.0 daily. In some cases there will also b^e a 
deficiency of phosphorus which can be replaced with calcium 
phosphate. Phosphorus in a bland oil (dogs, 0.001-0.002 in 
10.0 oil; birds, 0.005-0.001 in 2.0 oil) is also recommended. 
Small doses of hydrochloric acid, well diluted, will assist in 
the solution and assimilation of lime. 



3G2 DISEASES OF METABOLISM 

In dogs, when the Hmb bones become soft and deformed, 
spHnts and bandages are useful to act as a support which 
reduces the deformity to a minimum. 

OSTEOMALACIA. BRITTLENESS OF BONES. 

Osteomalacia occurs so rarely in small animals that the 
reader is referred to other works for the discussion of it. 



PART VII. 
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION. 



CHAPTER I. 

ARTICULAE RHEUMATISM. POLYARTHRITIS 
RHEUMATICA. 

Definition.— Articular rheumatism is evidently an infectious 
febrile disease in which several joints are affected. It is a 
serous or serofibrinous inflammation of the joints. It may 
suddenly shift from one joint to another. 

Etiology.— The actual cause of the disease has never been 
definitely proved, but all indications point to infection. 
Several factors no doubt have considerable influence in 
bringing on the attacks, such as (a) subjection to cold and 
chilling the surface of the body; (b) keeping animals in cold, 
damp cellars, or forcing them to sleep out in extreme cold 
weather; (c) infection following birth of the young. The 
close association of the disease with endocarditis and other 
diseases of serous membranes further suggest its infectious 
nature. 

Pathology.— The joint capsule is more or less distended 
with a yelfowish gelatinous-like fluid mixed with the synovia. 
The connective tissue is infiltrated with the same material. 
Examination of the synovial membrane itself reveals swelling, 
injection and hemorrhages. The cartilage of the joint is 
bluish or yellow in color and the surface roughened. Chronic 
cases show marked thickening of the periarticular tissue. 
Similar changes are often found in the tendon sheaths. The 
musculature shows atrophy. 



364 ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM— POLYARTHRITIS 

Symptoms.— The condition often begins suddenly involving 
one joint or several at the same time. The affected ones are 
very painful, the animal refusing to place any weight on the 
limb and holding it in a flexed position. The joints will be 
hot and swollen. Owing to the pain small animals usually 
remain in a recumbent position and refuse to arise. The 
acute symptoms often subside after a week, or ten days, and 
eventually develop into a chronic inflammation with deform- 
ity of the joints. Favorite locations of the inflammation 
are in the carpal, stifle, and phalangeal joints. In the early 
stages of the attack there is fever, which may reach 103°-105° 
F. The respirations are increased, the pulse double the 
normal number. The animal refuses to eat in most cases. 
The urine is reduced in quantity and dark in color. 

In the chronic form the disease assumes the character of 
a serosynovitis; the joint capsule is very much thickened 
and adhesions take place between the joint surfaces in a 
number of cases. Ankylosis, however, is rare. There is 
usually but little fever in this form but general emaciation 
and cachexia will be prominent. In a few cases complica- 
tions develop. Inflammation of the serous membranes is 
the most common. This is indicated by a greater rise in 
temperature and by the specific symptoms of the complicat- 
ing condition. 

Course.— In the acute form the disease usually runs for 
two or three weeks. Remissions often occur at different 
intervals for several months to one year. In many cases the 
attack disappears quite suddenly which may be for only a 
short time or permanently. 

Diagnosis.— This may be difficult. A careful examination 
must always be made to differentiate it from other diseases 
affecting the joints. It should be borne in mind that articular 
rheumatism comes on primarily while that produced by other 
diseases shows the primary condition elsewhere before the 
joints become affected. 

Prognosis.— Should not be considered too favorable. How- 
ever, in the dog they may recover completely. Very often 
the condition becomes chronic leading to permanent deform- 



MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM 365 

ity of the joints. Complications may also follow, such as 
endocarditis or inflammation of other serous membranes. 

Treatment.— Treatment in small animals is often satis- 
factory by the use of large doses of sodium salicylate (1.0 to 
2.0 daily). After two to three days the temperature falls 
almost to normal and the general condition will improve. 
Other preparations have been recommended, as salicylic 
acid (intravenously), salol, or acetanilid. Local applications 
to the joints will assist in giving relief from the pain, and in 
the absorption of the deposits. lodin liniments, camphor 
oil, or mercuric iodid ointment, any one of which may be 
applied alternately with hot water applications. The 
animal should be placed in a moderately warm room, where 
it is quiet, and provided with a soft bed. In the chronic 
form massage the joints thoroughly daily with Lugol's 
ointment. 

MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM. 

Definition.— A primary affection of the muscles (myositis) 
probably of infectious origin. It occurs commonly in dogs. 
Owing to the fact that it is very difficult to make a distinction 
between muscular rheumatism and so-called "soreness" and 
"stiffness" of the muscles, they are usually classed as muscu- 
lar rheumatism. The number of cases of muscular rheu- 
matism would no doubt be decreased if a careful examination 
were made in all cases and a more accurate diagnosis estab- 
lished. There has been a tendency no doubt to use the term 
muscular rheumatism in a too inclusive sense. 

Etiology.— The immediate cause of muscular rheumatism 
is probably an infection, the nature of which has not been 
determined up to the present time. Several factors have to 
do with the development of the disease: (a) Damp, cold 
kennels, and exposure to cold have proved decided factors 
in bringing on the attacks. ^ ery commonly observed in 
hunting dogs following their exposure on hunting trips. This 
is especially true in those animals that have been pampered 
and kept in warm buildings and quarters. (6) Ptomain 
i:)oisoning and intoxication from toxins absorbed from the 
intestinal tract will also produce it. (c) Certain infectious 



366 ^ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM—POLYARTHRITIS 

diseases of serous membranes will bring on attacks of muscu- 
lar rheumatism in a similar manner as articular rheumatism. 
{d) Injuries to the muscles, overexertion without previous 
exercise, will produce similar symptoms. This, however, 
should not be classed as muscular rheumatism. 

Pathology.— On examination the muscles will show serous 
inflammation with infiltration of the intramuscular con- 
nective tissue. Disintegration and fatty degeneration are 
found in most cases. The muscular tissue shows evidence 
of hyperemia and swelling. In chronic cases the fibrous 
connective tissue elements are thickened. 

Symptoms.— Pain is always a prominent symptom. This 
may be constant in severe attacks or in the milder forms 
periodic and recurrent. In dogs the condition very often 
comes on suddenly without any prodromal symptoms. The 
attack is usually transient lasting from a few hours to several 
weeks, and is very apt to recur. The symptoms of muscular 
rheumatism will depend somewhat upon the groups of muscles 
affected. Sometimes the muscles of the head and neck are 
involved; in this case the head and neck will be more or less 
fixed, the animal holding the head in a rigid position. When 
manipulated or the animal made to move indications of severe 
pain are noted. In other cases the muscles over the scapula 
will show the primary seat of the disease. This is often 
unilateral, but may be present on both sides. The anterior 
limb will be relaxed or the animal show marked lameness 
when weight is placed on it. When bilateral the animal 
may be found in a recumbent position, with the limbs 
straightened out, and refuses to get up. The patient cries 
out and whines when the muscles are palpated. 

In involvement of the muscles of the back (lumbago 
rheumatica) the animal assumes a rigid attitude, very 
cautious in all its movements, frequently refusing to move 
and when forced to do so great pain is manifest. Occasionally 
the patient will be found lying down. Manipulation of the 
muscles over the region produces intense pain. When the 
muscles of the extremities are primarily affected the animal 
lies on its back with the feet upward, whining and crying. 
Feces and urine are often retained when the abdominal 



MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM 367 

muscles are affected. The various functions of the body are 
interfered with owing to the pain from the disease. The 
sensibihty of the skin is either normal or hypersensitive. As 
a rule no appreciable rise in temperature is noted. The 
respirations are increased and may be shallow when the 
respiratory muscles are affected. The pulse may be increased 
materially, due to the pain present. The general condition 
of the animal is good and the appetite retained. In severe 
cases animals become emaciated from the disturbance of the 
functions. Complications occur occasionally in the form of 
acute inflammation of serous membranes, and disturbances 
in the digestive tract. 

Course.— The acute attack, as a rule, lasts only a few days 
to one week. The symptoms may disappear entirely. 
Recurrence of the condition is to be expected. 

Prognosis.— Complete recovery without periodical recur- 
rences of the disease can hardly be hoped for. Unless 
complications develop the patient will apparently recover 
from the attack. 

Treatment.— The early indications in the treatment are: 
Protection of the patient from exposure, relief from the 
pain and the administration of antirheumatic agents. The 
animal should be placed in a moderately warm, dry place 
with a soft bed. All further exposure to cold and dampness 
should be ai^oided. Local applications to the- affected 
muscles are recommended. Massage the muscles with soap 
liniment, camphor liniment, or chloroform liniment. These 
should be applied once or twice daily. Hot towels applied 
to the affected area often give relief promptly. Internally 
administer sodium salicylate or salicylic acid in large doses 
(0.9 to 1.5) once daily. When the pain is intense it is 
advisable to control it by subcutaneous injections of morphin 
sulphate (0.1 to 0.2). This may be repeated in twelve to 
eighteen hours if necessary. Complications as they arise 
should be treated. In cases that tend to become chronic, 
potassium iodid is highly recommended (0.2 to 0.4). Ple- 
thoric animals should be depleted by administering saline 
laxatives (magnesium sulphate 8.0 to 12.0). 



368 ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM— POLYARTHRITIS 



FRACTURE OF BONES. 

As a result of injuries from various causes small animals 
are particularly prone to fractures of different kinds. The 
number of fractures and the bones affected are much greater 
than in the large animals. All kinds of fractures (partial, 
complete, compound, or comminuted) are observed. The 
larger number of fractures naturally take place in the extrem- 
ities, although fractures of the skull bones, inferior maxilla, 
ribs and vertebra? are not uncommon. The causes of frac- 
tures are varied, but the greater number of cases result from 
traumatism (being run over by vehicles, kicks, falls, jump- 
ing, gunshot wounds, bites from other animals). In a few 
cases extreme muscular contraction wdll fracture the bones. 
Various diseases of the bones, and senility predispose to 
fractures. The follomng are the more common fractures 
met with : 

Cranial Bones.— This form of fracture occurs occasionally 
in dogs. The writer has observed six cases during the past 
ten years. 

Etiology.— Practically always results from traumatism. 
Being struck by sharp or blunt objects, run over by automo- 
biles, kicks, etc., are the most frequent causes. 

Symptoms.— Various kinds and degrees of fractures are 
recognized, from a simple fissuring of the bones to penetrat- 
ing, depressed or compound comminuted fractures. The 
symptoms vary with the degree and kind of fracture. Simple 
fissuring of the bones may not produce any marked symptoms 
unless the concussion has been sufficient to cause hemorrhage 
or injury to the membranes of the brain. The presence of the 
wound and on pressure slight movement between the bones 
may be observed. Penetrating wounds with fracture often 
produce complications of hemorrhage into the cranial cavity 
or direct injury to the structures within. Examination of the 
external wound and carefully probing will at once disclose 
the actual conditions. Fractures with depression of a frag- 
ment of bone cause more or less brain disturbance depending 
upon the location of the fracture. The psychical disturb- 



FRACTURE OF BONES 369 

ances and the presence of the wound would assist in making 
the diagnosis. If there is doubt in regard to the exact con- 
ditions the external wound can be opened sufficiently to 
examine the parts direct. Compound and comminuted 
fractures show the presence of the wound and the opening 
through the cranial bones. Fragments of bone may be found 
projecting out through the opening or downward into the 
cranial cavity. Probing will reveal the conditions. The 
concussion from the injury may produce unconsciousness 
for a time even though but little damage has been done the 
bones themselves. Death occurs suddenly in many instances 
when the brain is severely injured or sudden severe hemor- 
rhage takes place. Careful examination should be made in 
all cases in order to establish a positive diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis should not be considered too 
favorable on account of the danger of brain complications. 

Treatment.— The treatment will depend upon the kind of 
fracture. In simple fissuring of the bone no treatment is 
necessary, except for the contusion of the skin and muscular 
tissue covering the bone. Penetrating fractures are best 
treated by opening the external wound, examining the 
fractured portions and elevating them carefully with a scalpel 
or stiff probe. Clean the wound thoroughly and suture the 
skin covering it with iodoform collodion. 

Depression of the skull bones should have prompt treat- 
ment to relieve the pressure from the brain and membranes. 
This is best done by making external incision, and if necessary 
a small opening through the bones so that an instrument can 
be inserted to elevate them to their normal position. Strict 
aseptic precautions should be observed in the operation. 
Suture the outside wound. In compound comminuted frac- 
tures all fragments of bone should be removed, conserving as 
much as possible, and a protective dressing applied to the 
parts. 

Fracture of the Inferior Maxilla.— Fracture of this bone 
occurs ver\' often in dogs and cats. The points of fracture 
are usually at the symphysis, in front of the premolars, or 
posterior to the molars. Frequently the fracture is bilateral, 
but in most cases involves one side. 
24 



370 ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM—POLYARTHRITIS 

Etiology.— Traumatism is often the cause of the fracture. 
It can result from extraction of teeth. It may follow alveolar 
periostitis, or exfoliation of a portion of the bone weakening 
the jaw at this point. Extreme pressure from biting on hard 
objects (stones of large size) can be a cause. Diseases of the 
bones (fragilitas ossium) predisposing them to fracture. 

Symptoms.— Difficulty in eating is the first symptom 
noticed. Other s;vTnptoms are displacement of the maxilla 
at the point of fracture, excessive salivation, and enlarge- 
ment on the side affected. On examination crepitus and 
movement between the portions of bone will be recognized 
at once. 

Prognosis.— Owing to the complications of infection, and 
the difficulty in keeping the parts quiet, the prognosis is 
unfavorable. 

Treatment.— Various methods of treatment have been 
tried. In Assuring mthout laceration of the mucous mem- 
brane it is advisable to try wiring them together with silver 
wire using the teeth as fixed points. In compound fractures 
when infection takes place treatment is usually unsatis- 
factory. Fixing the maxilla by the use of a leather pad or 
muzzle in contact with the superior maxilla, disinfecting the 
mouth twice daily, and giving liquid foods have proved the 
most satisfactory treatment. 

In comminuted fractures where fragments of bone must 
be removed but little can be expected of any treatment. 

Fracture of the Vertebrae.— The points at which fractures 
most commonly occur are in the cervical, lumbar, and coccy- 
geal segments. 

Etiology.— Most cases result from traumatism. 

Symptoms.— The s^nnptoms will depend upon the kind of 
fracture, whether it is confined to portions of the vertebrse 
outside of the canal or involves the canal ^dth the spinal cord. 
Crepitus and pain on manipulation of the parts are prominent 
symptoms. Should the fracture be confined to the lateral 
processes no other symptoms will be observed. In complete 
fracture of the cer\dcal vertebrse mth involvement of the 
cord, death may result in a few minutes, or hours. Complete 
paralysis exists posterior to the point of the fracture. Fract- 



FRACTURE OF BONES 371 

ure in the lumbar region produces paraplegia and paralysis 
of the posterior portion of the body. Differentiation between 
hemorrhage in the canal, edema of the cord and fractures is 
often difficult and can be determined only by the progress 
of the case. Fractures of the coccygeal vertebrae are easily 
determined by crepitus and the increased mobility of the 
parts. 

Prognosis.— Complete fracture of the vertebrse is unfavor- 
able. Fracture of the lateral processes or coccygeal vertebra? 
is favorable. 

Treatment. — No treatment is possible in fracture of the 
cervical and lumbar vertebrse. The animal should be placed 
in a quiet, comfortable place. Give nourishing food. If 
necessary artificial feeding should be carried out. Laxatives 
are also necessary. Simple fracture of the coccygeal vertebrae 
is best treated by bandaging. If complications arise or a 
compound fracture is present amputation may be necessary 
at the point of fracture, or slightly above. 

Fracture of the Ribs.— This is found most commonly in 
dogs and is of very frequent occurrence. 

Etiology.— Produced in many cases by being run over by 
vehicles, struck by objects, or kicked. 

Symptoms.— One or two ribs may be fractured without 
producing marked symptoms. This is especially true in 
partial and in simple fractures. Some will show displace- 
ment and enlargement at the point of fracture. Crepitus is 
hard to distinguish in all patients. Compound fractures may 
cause injury to the pleura or lung tissue. Examination should 
be made carefully. 

Prognosis.— Favorable unless complications involving the 
pleura and lungs develop. 

Treatment.— Most cases do not require any treatment. 
Keep the animal quiet. A bandage applied around the thorax 
to assist in keeping the parts fixed might be used. Compli- 
cations involving the pleura and lungs should be treated 
according to the conditions. 

Fracture of the Scapula.— This is not of freciuent occur- 
rence. In dogs the points of fracture most common are 
througli the neck and glenoid cavity. In young animals 



372 ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM— POYL ARTHRITIS 

separation takes place frequently between the epiphyses and 
diaphyses. 

Etiology.— From injuries and diseases of the bones. 

Symptoms.— Sudden development of lameness. The limb 
usually hangs inert and cannot be moved upward and for- 
ward. Examination will reveal the fracture. 

Treatment.— No satisfactory treatment can be applied 
owing to the location of the scapula. Dogs, when well cared 
for and protected, will recover without special treatment. 
Dogs protect the limbs better than any other animal. Stim- 
ulating liniments might be applied over the area (soap lini- 
ment, iodin liniment) . 

Fracture of the Humerus.— Owing to the exposed position 
of the humerus it is frequently fractured. In young animals 
separation of the epiphyseal and diaphyseal portions is not 
uncommon. It has been observed that the lower end of the 
bone is more often fractured than any other portion. Fract- 
ure of the condyles occurs with considerable regularity. 

Etiology.— Traumata of various kinds produce the majority 
of cases. It occasionally happens that both the humerus 
and scapula are fractured at the same time. 

Symptoms.— When unilateral fracture of either the epi- 
physeal or diaphyseal portions of the bone takes place the 
animal cannot support any weight on the limb. It will hang 
free and limp. Should both be fractured the animal rests its 
weight on its haunches, or assumes a recumbent position. 

Diagnosis.— Examination of the limb will at once make 
the diagnosis positive. It is very rare to find a compound 
fracture. 

Prognosis .— Fa vorable . 

Treatment.— The application of bandages is very difficult. 
This is especially true when the fracture occurs in the upper 
portion of the bone. Experience has proved that good 
results follow without splints or bandages. Occasionally a 
false union of cartilage or fibrous connective tissue will result 
forming a pseudo-articulation. 

Fracture of the Radius and Ulna.— This is the most fre- 
quent of all fractures in the anterior limb of the dog. All 
small animals are affected in a similar manner. Fracture 



FRACTURE OF BONES 373 

usually occurs in both bones simultaneously. When one 
bone is fractured it is usually the olecranon portion of the 
ulna. The lower third of the bones is the seat of the majority 
of fractures. 

Etiology.— Practically always result from injuries. Some 
few cases are due to diseases of the bones. 

Symptoms.— Inability to place w^eight on the limb and 
angularity at the point of fracture. There are swelling and 
distortion of the limb. When the olecranon is fractured the 
distortion will be marked at the point of the elbow. Crepitus 
and free movement between the fractured portions will be 
apparent on manipulation. 

Treatment.— Wrapping the limb with ordinary linen band- 
age is recommended until the swelling subsides. Plaster 
bandages are unsatisfactory during the first few days owing 
to the change in the size of the parts from swelling. A pad 
of cotton should be applied to protect the skin from pressure 
necrosis and to allow for swelling to take place, then strips 
of cardboard softened by placing in warm water for a few 
minutes, and over this a linen bandage. The patient should 
be observed to determine whether the bandage has been 
drawn too tight or has become loose. Should the foot be 
found swollen it indicates that the bandage is too tight and 
free circulation of blood interfered with. It should be 
loosened. After a few days a plaster bandage can be applied 
if thought advisable. It should remain in position for a few 
weeks to ensure complete union. Uniting the bone at point 
of fracture with silver wire has been tried with varying 
degrees of success. Radial fractures usually make prompt 
and complete recoveries. 

Fracture of the Metacarpal and Phalangeal Bones.— These 
bones are fractured from the same causes as mentioned under 
the others. 

Diagnosis.— This is made by careful ])alpation. 

Treatment. — Pandage as in fracture of the radius and ulna. 
In compound fractures it is sometimes necessary to am])utate 
a portion of the limb or toes. 

Fracture of the Pelvis.— Fracture of this bone is quite 
common in small animals, and ])resents a variety* of condi- 



374 ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM— POLYARTHRITIS 

tions. The most common points of fracture are through 
the symphysis, external angles of the ilium, or through the 
acetabulum. Both unilateral and bilateral fractures are 
observed. Complications are common follomng fracture of 
the pelvis, owing to the injury of adjacent structures. Injury 
to the nerves or bloodvessels is most common. 

Etiology.— Pelvic fractures are produced very frequently 
by being run over, struck by objects, kicks, or falling. 

Symptoms.— The sjTuptoms will vary somewhat depending 
on the degree of fracture, its location, and the complications. 
Deformity of the pelvis is present in fracture of the external 
angle of the ilium. Crepitation and movement of the parts 
can be detected. Fracture through the symphysis is evi- 
denced by the unnatural gait of the animal, the abduction 
of the limbs, and the separation which can be detected on 
palpation between the fractured portions. It is sometimes 
difficult to make a positive diagnosis in fracture at other 
points on account of the smallness of the openings through 
which the examination must be made. Complicating symp- 
toms should be examined for in all cases. 

Prognosis.— Unless complications of hemorrhage and 
destruction of some of the nerves occur, the ' prognosis is 
considered favorable. Different degrees of deformity will be 
met with which should be considered in the prognosis. The 
condition is serious in breeding animals on account of the 
deformity narro^\ang the pehdc canal. Such animals should 
be given a careful examination in this regard. 

Treatment.— But little can be done in the way of treatment. 
Union usually takes place promptly by giving the animal 
protection for a few weeks. Various methods have been tried 
to approximate fractures of the pelvis but with little success. 

Fracture of the Femur.— Fracture of the femur occurs 
often in dogs, cats and rabbits. The majority of cases are 
found involving the lower third of the bone. Some few cases 
are observed in the upper portion, even involving the head 
of the femur. 

Etiology.— Injuries and accidents account for the larger 
number of cases. Diseases of the bone (fragilitas ossium and 
osteomalacia) predispose to fracture. 



FRACTURE OF BONES 375 

Symptoms.— In practically every case the limb is held off 
the ground, freely moved in all directions, and appears shorter 
than normal. Care should be made to differentiate between 
fracture and dislocation of the head of the femur. Examina- 
tion of the limb will reveal the point of fracture. 

Diagnosis.— Fissuring of the bone may present some diffi- 
culty but in other cases the diagnosis is easy. 

Prognosis.— Favorable. Union of the bones may result in 
some permanent distortion, such as shortening the limb, or a 
certain amount of angularity. 

Treatment.— An attempt should be made to bandage the 
limb to keep the bones in apposition as nearly as possible. 
A temporary muslin and splint bandage should be used until 
the swelling subsides. Later a better and more permanent 
dressing may be applied. As a rule union takes place quite 
promptly and without much distortion. 

Fracture of the Patella.— This bone is very rarely fractured 
in small animals. Careful palpation over the region would 
reveal the condition. No treatment other than bandaging 
can be applied. 

Fracture of the Tibia and Fibula.— These bones are the 
seat of all types of fractures. Very common in dogs and 
rabbits. The symptoms, prognosis and treatment are similar 
to those given for the radius and ulna. 



CHAPTER II. 

DISEASES OF THE ARTICULATIONS. 

The various articulations in small animals are subjected 
to a variety of conditions. 

WOUNDS OF THE ARTICULATIONS. 

Punctured wounds and various kinds of incised wounds 
are frequently met with. In some cases the adjacent struct- 
ures may be severely injured complicating the condition. 
Further classification should be made into aseptic and septic 
wounds. From a practical standpoint it is important to 
examine the wounds carefully to make these distinctions. 

Etiology. — It is selfevident that these wounds occur 
through various accidents and injuries to which the animals 
are subjected. 

Symptoms.— The animal will favor the joint affected and 
refuse to walk on the limb. A thin, serous discharge (synovia) 
is noted coming from the wound. The amount of pain and 
swelling will not be marked in the early stages. However, 
if infection is introduced, these symptoms develop very 
rapidly. Pus soon makes its appearance, the joint becomes 
very hot and sensitive, and general symptoms of fever, loss 
of appetite, are observed. 

Diagnosis. — This is made by carefully examining the dis- 
charge and by probing the wound with a sterile probe. 

Prognosis.— Should not be made very favorable in any case, 
owing to the possibility of destruction of the joint, or anky- 
losis. Non-infected wounds usually heal without difficulty. 

Treatment.— After learning the facts concerning the in- 
volvement of the joint, strict antiseptic precautions should 
be taken, and all means employed to prevent infection. 



SPRAINS AND INJURIES TO THE ARTICULATIONS 377 

Sha^^e the hair from the area and disinfect the surface with 
bichlorid of mercury and glycerin (1 to 500). Saturate gauze 
or cotton with this solution and apph' under a bandage, if 
possible. When infection is already present it is advisable 
to open the wound so that adequate drainage will be brought 
about. Use the same solution as above and inject it into the 
articulation. Apply a protective dressing. Repeat this 
treatment at least twice daily. 

SPRAINS AND INJURIES TO THE ARTICULATIONS. 

In the larger number of injuries occurring in small animals 
it frequently happens that the structures around the joints 
are torn or otherwise injured without an external wound. 
This condition may occur in any of the articulations. As 
soon as the injury occurs the synovial secretion is increased' 
in amount, and the adjacent tissues are often edematous. 

Symptoms.— The condition develops suddenly ■ following 
injury, or violent exercise. The articulation soon becomes 
enlarged, very hot and painful to the touch. The patient 
refuses to bear any weight on the limb. Careful examina- 
tion must be made to differentiate sprains from fracture or 
dislocation. Distortion, increased movement, and crepitus 
found in fractures are absent in this condition. The normal 
position of the bones would exclude dislocation. In severe 
cases the swelling may be so extensive as to interfere with 
making a positive and early diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— Most cases of sprains recover. 

Course.— The course depends upon the degree of injury. 

Treatment.— The animal should be confined in a quiet 
place for several days. Cold applications in the form of cold 
water, or better, ice packs, should be applied during the 
first twenty-four to thirty-six hours. The packs are changed 
frequently to keep up the refrigeration. Follow this treat- 
ment with hot water, or liniment (iodin liniment, white 
liniment) a})plied once or twice daily. Massage the parts 
tiioroughly. The latter treatment should be continued for 
two to three weeks, if necessar>'. 



378 DISEASES OF THE ARTICULATIONS 



DISLOCATION OF THE ARTICULATIONS. LUXATION. 

Dislocation of the various articulations in dogs, cats and 
rabbits is a common occurrence. Birds often have luxation 
of the joints of the wings. 

The following are the most common dislocations found in 
small animals: 

Temporomaxillary.— This occurs more frequently in dogs 
than in any other animal. 

Etiology.— Resulting in most cases from extreme opening 
of the mouth, either from being forcibly pulled open, or from 
large objects being taken into the mouth. The condition 
may be either unilateral or bilateral. 

Symptoms.— Fixation of the lower maxilla either laterally 
(in case of unilateral luxation), or downward and forward 
(bilateral luxation). Saliva flows from the mouth freely, the 
animal is unable to move the maxilla, or only slightly, and 
shows considerable anxiety and pain. Pawing at the mouth 
with the forefeet, rubbing the parts against objects, and 
carrying the head in abnormal positions, are prominent 
symptoms. Patients showing these symptoms should be 
handled carefully, as in some respects they are not unlike 
dumb rabies. Examination will easily reveal the differential 
features. 

Prognosis. — Usually favorable, except when the case is of 
too long standing and fracture of the bones is present. There 
is always the possibility of a recurrence. 

Treatment.— Reduction of the dislocation should be made 
early. The animal should be anesthetized (morphin sulphate, 
0.1 to 0.2), placed on a suitable table in the dorsal position, 
and by using a fulcrum inserted between the teeth, the jaws 
are forced apart by bringing the incisors together. By 
careful manipulation the bones are replaced in their normal 
position. Considerable patience is often necessary to accom- 
plish this. If fractures are present but little can be done. 
Use artificial feeding of liquid foods for a few days. It is 
advisable to tape the mouth shut for a few days until the 
articulations are normal again. 



DISLOCATION OF THE ARTICULATIONS— LUXATION 379 

Vertebral.— Dislocation unattended by fracture is rare. 
The articulations are so arranged anatomically that luxation 
without fracture is not liable to occur. Partial luxation is 
met with occasionally and is diagnosed by the position of 
the head and curvature of the vertebrae. Straightening the 
head and neck should be "attempted. 

Scapulohumeral.— Owing to the position of the articulation 
and its anatomical structure complete luxation is not com- 
mon. The articulation is capable of rather extensive move- 
ment without dislocation. 

Etiology.— It is brought about by excessive flexion of the 
joint from injuries and accidents. The luxation is usually 
forward and inward. 

Symptoms.— The condition occurs suddenly and distortion 
of the joint is apparent at once. The joint is held in a flexed 
position and distention is practically impossible. The limb 
is much shorter than normal. Examination of the articula- 
tion reveals the head of the humerus forward producing an 
enlargement anteriorly and a depression posteriorly. Animals 
show pain on manipulation of the joint. 

Prognosis.— In complete luxation the prognosis is favorable 
when taken early but later when swelling takes place reduc- 
tion is -difficult, and the joint capsule will rarely resume its 
normal condition. Partial luxations are favorable. 

Treatment.— The animal should be anesthetized (morphin 
sulphate, 0.1 to 0.2), placed on the table in lateral recumbency 
with the affected articulation presented . Extend the humerus 
and push backward on the head of the humerus. Usually 
replacement will take place without much difficulty. Apply 
a bandage for a few days to protect the part. Massage and 
a stimulating liniment should be applied around the joint. 

Humero-radio-ulnar.- Luxation of this articulation may be 
partial or complete. Various conditions can be found owing 
to the anatomical structure of the joint. The dislocation 
may be between the humerus and radius or between the 
radius and ulna. In some cases all of the structures are 
involved. The dislocation may take place to the inside or 
outside depending upon the cause of the condition. When 
dislocation occurs there is nearly always a tearing or stretch- 



380 DISEASES OF THE ARTICULATIONS 

ing of the ligamentous attachments around the joints. A 
congenital dislocation is sometimes observed. 

Etiology.— The condition is brought about by injuries, such 
as blows from the outside or inside, extreme flexion or exten- 
sion of the joint, falling, or jumping. Frequently the limb 
is given a sudden twist by the foot being caught when the 
animal is in motion, or pulling backward to free itself. 

Symptoms.— Distortion of the articulation is noted, and 
the lower limb in an abnormal position, either abducted or 
adducted. There is an enlargement present on one side and 
a corresponding depression on the opposite. 'The limb 
appears short, and the animal refuses to place any weight 
on it when in motion or at rest. Examination reveals the 
joint to be hot and painful when manipulated. The dis- 
placed bone can easily be palpated, and the luxation deter- 
mined. 

Prognosis.— Not very favorable owing to the injury to the 
annular ligaments, and the possibility of a return of the 
condition. 

Treatment.— Reduction of the dislocation should be made 
under general anesthesia. The method of procedure will 
depend upon the dislocation. As a rule but little difficulty 
will be experienced in bringing the parts back to their normal 
position. After reduction of the luxation the parts should 
be bandaged to hold them in position. The bandage should 
be left in place for two or three weeks, or until the annular 
ligaments are united. Congenital luxation is unsatisfactory 
from the standpoint of treatment. Wiring of the bones 
might be tried in cases that cannot be kept in position by 
bandaging. 

Radio-ulnar-carpal.- From violent injury luxation of this 
articulation may take place. The annular ligaments become 
torn allowing the articular surfaces to be displaced. 

Symptoms.— Distortion of the articulation either forward 
or backward is most common. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is not difficult when a careful 
examination is made. 

Treatment.— Reduction of the luxation is easy, but it 
requires several wrecks before the animal will be able to use 



DISLOCATION OF ARTICULATIONS— LUXATION 381 

the limb. Protect the joint by placing a pad of cotton under 
a bandage. Keep the bandage on for two or three weeks. 

Phalangeal.— Dislocation is very common and results from 
traumata. A careful examination should always be made 
to differentiate luxations from fractures, and to definitely 
determine the joint displaced. They should be reduced as 
early as possible and a bandage apphed. Keep the bandage 
in position for two to three weeks. 

Coxofemoral.— This is one of the most common disloca- 
tions in dogs, cats and rabbits. It may be partial or com- 
plete. When partial the damage is mainly in connection 
with the capsular ligament, while in complete luxation the 
entire joint structure and the adjacent tissues are involved. 

Etiology.— Being struck by objects, run over by vehicles, 
and having the foot caught in traps, etc., are the most com- 
mon causes. Extreme extension of the limb from any cause 
may bring it about. 

Symptoms.— The most frequent form of luxation is forward 
and upward. The animal is found with the limb fixed in a 
backward, adducted position, and refuses to place any weight 
on it. An enlargement will be noted just anterior to the 
normal position of the joint, and on palpation the head of 
the femur can be felt. Manipulation of the limb will at once 
reveal the condition. Luxation into the foramen ovale is 
not common but occurs in a small percentage of cases. The 
limb appears longer than normal, is slightly abducted^ and 
the stifle joint is turned outward. Adduction of the limb 
is difficult and impossible to the normal degree. Palpation 
of the parts will easily diagnose the condition. 

A backward, upward luxation occurs occasionally and the 
position of the limb is forward and inward, with an enlarge- 
ment present on the posterior aspect of the joint. Careful 
examination will determine the relationship of the i)arts. In 
partial luxation the animal is able to move the Yunh and 
shows lameness but very little deformity. ( lironic conditions 
become accommodated to the movements of the anim 
through the formation of a pseudo-articulation. 

Prognosis.- Rather unfavorable for a c()m])lcte recovery. 
Early cases are much more favorable than those of a few days 
or weeks standing. 



382 DISEASES OF THE ARTICULATIONS 

Treatment.— Treatment should be applied as early as pos- 
sible. Anesthetize the animal and effect replacement by 
manipulation of the limb according to the character of the 
luxation. The principle involved is to extend the articulation 
in whatever direction is necessary so that the head of the 
femur can be returned to the acetabulum. Very little can 
be done in after-treatment except keeping the animal quiet 
for several days. Mechanical appliances to hold the bones 
in position have not proved satisfactory. Little can be 
expected in the treatment of chronic cases. 

Patellar.— This occurs most frequently in the dog. The 
ligaments of the patella are not very well developed outside 
of the middle one. Therefore, displacement is more liable to 
occur laterally. Experience has shown that internal displace- 
ment is by far the most common. 

Etiology.— The anatomical structure of the patellar liga- 
ments and the joint in particular make displacement easy 
from excessive exertion or injuries. In some breeds the 
internal femoral ridge of the patellar groove is very small; 
therefore internal displacement is of common occurrence. 

Symptoms.— The limb is held in a flexed position, and the 
patient has difflculty in supporting weight. The flexion is 
most apparent at the stifle joint. The position of the limb 
is somewhat characteristic, the stifle joint adducted, the 
hock rotated outwardly, and the lower portion of the limb 
carried toward the median line. Examination of the stifle 
joint will reveal the misplaced patella. When the condition 
is bilateral the animal will show a crouching attitude, and 
will have considerable difficulty in maintaining the standing 
position. The animal moves with great difficulty in bilateral 
dislocation. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis should not be considered favor- 
able owing to the difficulty in keeping the parts quiet and 
the possibility of a recurrence of the condition. Very often 
there is a tendency for the condition to become chronic. 

Treatment.— Replacement of the patella presents very little 
difficulty; therefore the problem of keeping the patella in 
position untir the ligaments assume their normal condition 
is to be the principal aim in treatment. Replacement is 



INFLAMMATION OF THE SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE 383 

affected by extension of the joint which will allow the patella 
to be pulled back to its normal position. Apply linen bandage 
in order to retain the parts in their normal position. The 
animal should be kept quiet for several days. A plaster 
bandage might be used to advantage. 

TibiotarsaL— This is not very common in small animals. 
\^Tlen it does occur it is accompanied by rupture of the liga- 
ments or fracture of some of the bones. A careful examination 
should be made to determine the conditions as accurately as 
possible. Linen bandage should be applied for the first few 
days, folloAved by a plaster bandage if necessary. 

Caudal Vertebrge.— The larger breeds of dogs with long 
tails (Great Dane, greyhound, etc.) are the most frequent 
sufferers. Examination of the parts will reveal the condition. 
A bandage applied rather firmly and kept in position for 
several days will correct the dislocation. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE AND 
ARTICULATIONS. SYNOVITIS. ARTHRITIS. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the synovial membrane 
and articular surfaces. The conditions may be acute or 
chronic. Very often the entire joint will be inflamed (syno- 
vitis and arthritis) . It is very difficult to make a distinction 
between these two conditions. 

Etiology.— Most cases result from sprains and contusions 
of the joint. Few result from infection (pyogenic). The 
infection usually gains entrance through wounds of the syno- 
vial membrane. 

Symptoms.— Enlargement of the joint, extreme sensitive- 
ness, and increased local temperature are characteristic 
symptoms. The animal cannot use the limb to any extent. 
Examination should be made carefully to differentiate it 
from articular rheumatism. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in cases resulting from sprains and 
bruises; unfavorable in infected joints. 

Treatment.— During the early stages of the condition cold 
applications are applied either in the form of cold water or 
ice packs which should be carried out conscientiously if the 



384 DISEASES OF THE ARTICULATIONS 

best results are to be expected. This treatment may be 
followed by hot applications and liniments (soap liniment, 
white liniment, iodin liniment). During treatment the 
animal must be confined to ensure rest to the affected joints. 
In case pus is present in the articulation, it should be opened 
and antiseptics directly injected. (See Wounds of Joints.) 
Chronic cases are not amenable to treatment. 



PART VIII. 
DISEASES OF THE URINARY SYSTEM. 



CHAPTER I. 

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS. 

Examination.— Examination of the kidneys consists of ab- 
dominal palpation, direct inspection and exploration, and 
examination of the urine. 

(a) Abdominal palpation is best done with the animal in a 
standing position, using the fingers of both hands. By gentle 
digital pressure, abnormalities in the dimension and location 
of the kidneys will be noted. This method of examination 
will prove satisfactory only in cases where a marked enlarge- 
ment occurs, or in emaciated animals. 

(b) Direct inspection of the kidneys may be made, espe- 
cially in dogs, by performing laparotomy under anesthesia 
(see Laparotomy) . This method can be done safely and will 
be found useful in determining accurately the size, consist- 
ency, and location of the kidneys. In cases of cysts or other 
enlargements an exploring needle may be used to obtain 
some of the contents for examination. 

(c) The examination of the urine should be made chemi- 
cally and physically. Chemically tests should be made for 
albumin and sugar. The tests for albumin are made as 
follows: Heller's ring test is a very valuable one as a very 
small percentage of al})umin can be demonstrated with it. 
It is made in the following manner: A small amount of 
urine is filtered, poured into a test-tube containing concen- 
trated nitric acid. At the point of contact of the two liquids 

25 



386 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

a well defined white ring forms, the depth of which depends 
upon the amount of albumin present. 

The boiling point may also be used. Take a few cubic 
centimeters of urine in a test-tube and heat to boiling, acidu- 
late by adding 5 to 10 drops of concentrated nitric acid. A 
precipitate which has been formed by earthy phosphates or 
carbonates will then dissolve, but one due to coagulated 
albumin remains. 

The metaphosphoric acid test is made by adding an aque- 
ous solution of metaphosphoric acid to the urine. The urine 
becomes cloud}" in case albumin is present. 

The acetic acid-ferrocyanid of potassium test is made by 
adding 2 per cent, of acetic acid to the urine and then a 
5 per cent, solution of ferrocyanid of potassium, the latter 
drop by drop avoiding an excess. If albumin is present a 
decided turbidity or flocculent precipitate appears. 

The quantitative determination of albumin is made with 
Esbach's albuminometer. x\cidulated urine is filled into the 
sign U, the reagent up to R (1 part of picric acid, 2 parts of 
citric acid, and 100 parts distilled water), the tube is closed 
with a rubber stopper and slowly turned over several times 
without shaking; let stand at room temperature for twenty^ 
four hours, the precipitate has settled and may be read off. 
The figure indicates the proportion of albumin in grams pro 
mille. Urine containing a large percentage of albumin must 
be first diluted with water and the indicated figure must then 
be multiplied with the figure of the dilution to obtain the 
exact amount of albumin present. 

When it has been demonstrated that albumin is present 
in the urine, then it must be determined whether the albumin 
originates from the kidneys, from the urinary passages, or 
from the nearby genital organs. If the urinary sediment 
contains no organic form elements, or form elements derived 
from the kidneys, and if the presence of dissolved coloring 
matter of the blood may be excluded, then it is positive that 
it is renal albuminuria. If there is a large amount of organic 
sediment then it is not likely to be renal albuminuria. In 
some cases it is possible to have a mixture, coming from the 
kidneys and also from other parts of the urinary system. 



CONGESTION OF THE KIDNEYS— HYPEREMIA 387 

The chemical test for sugar in the urine is best made by 
using Trommer's test, which is as follows: 

A few cubic centimeters of urine are put into a test-tube, 
after removing any albumin which might be present, dilute 
it with an equal volume of water, render it alkaline with a 
small quantity of sodium hydrate, then add drop by drop 
a 4 per cent, solution of copper sulphate until the liquid is 
clear and the sediment dissolved, then heat until it boils. If 
sugar is present, a reddish-yellow vapor appears at the sur- 
face of the fluid. The bismuth test is often used for the same 
determination. The albumin is removed from 10 parts of 
urine and added to this is 2 parts of subnitrate of bismuth, 
4 parts Rochelle salts, and 100 parts of a 10 per cent, solution 
of sodium hydroxid. This mixture is boiled for five minutes. 
It becomes black if sugar is present. 

To determine the quantity of sugar present the saccharom- 
eter is used. The urine is fermented by adding a small 
quantity of yeast. Graduated glass tubes or other appa- 
ratus are necessary to determine the exact quantity of sugar 
present. 

Physically the urine varies in color and amount, depending 
a great deal upon the kind and amount of food, the condition 
of the kidneys, and the species of the animal. 



CONGESTION OF THE KIDNEYS. HYPEREMIA. 

This condition is divided into two forms, viz.: (a) Acute 
hyperemia (arterial hyperemia), (6) passive h\T)eremia 
(venous hyperemia) . 

Acute Hyperemia.— Etiology.— The causes of this condi- 
tion are usually the same as those producing acute nephritis. 
Irritating foodstuffs, chemicals and various diuretic com- 
pounds, are the most common things producing acute hyper- 
emia. It may occur during the course of infectious diseases 
(distemper, rabies). Plethoric animals frequently have active 
hyperemia of the kidneys. 

Pathology.— The kidneys are enlarged, swollen, softened 
and highly reddened. The arteries and caj)iHaries are found 



388 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

distended. Small hemorrhages appear under the capsule. 
The capsule is easily removed. 

Symptoms.— This condition may not produce very marked 
symptoms. The most noticeable is the increased amount 
of urine, the specific gravity of which is much lower than 
normal. Sensitiveness over the region of the kidneys, and 
stiffness in walking are also common symptoms. 

Prognosis.— Depends upon the cause. There is always 
danger of the condition resulting in an acute inflammation 
of the kidneys. 

Treatment.— Acute purgation is indicated. Administration 
of magnesium sulphate, or calomel to remove the waste 
material through the bowels. Avoid irritating foodstuffs. 
Give milk for a few days. The cause should be removed if 
possible. 

Passive Hyperemia.— Etiology.— This condition is brought 
about as a secondary disease following valvular defects, dis- 
eases of the lungs, pleura, etc. In some cases it is produced 
by pressure on the renal vessels by tumors, etc. In all 
instances the circulatory disturbances lead to an engorgement 
or passive congestion of the kidneys. 

Pathology. — In passive hyperemia the kidneys are of a 
dark bluish-red color, larger than normal. On cut section 
the venous blood oozes out. In old cases there will be found 
considerable connective tissue thickening. 

Symptoms.— In this condition the quantity of urine is 
decreased, and albuminuria is present. 

Prognosis.— Depends upon the primary condition. 

Treatment. —Medical— Tiigitalis administered in small 
doses daily. Animals should be given gentle exercise. Give 
nourishing food which is non-irritating (milk and eggs). 



INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. NEPHRITIS. 

Acute Nephritis — Definition. —An acute inflammatory condi- 
tion of the kidne}^s, which is characterized either by nutritional 
disturbances of the renal epithelium with only a slight change 
in the interstitial connective tissue (parenchymatous nephri- 



INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS— NEPHRITIS 389 

tis), or an involvement of both the renal epithelium and the 
interstitial tissue without the formation of a purulent exudate 
(nephritis acuta diffusa). 

Etiology.— This disease is quite common in small animals 
and birds in which it frequently develops from infectious 
diseases and poisons. 

Acute nephritis occurs secondary to infectious diseases. 
The organisms circulate via the blood stream, become lodged 
in the glomeruli and in the intertubular bloodvessels, and 
at the point of lodgment injure the tissues. In this way the 
disease occurs during the course of distemper, chicken cholera, 
septicemia, etc. Bacterial toxins in passing through the 
cellular elements of the kidneys, produce in them and the 
bloodvessel walls certain degenerative processes, which 
eventually lead to an acute inflammation. The bacterial 
toxins probably produce the disease in the majority of cases, 
as the absorption of toxins takes place in a number of condi- 
tions, such as in diseases of the alimentary tract, diseases 
of the peritoneum, etc., and in this manner we may account 
for the development of acute nephritis during or following 
such diseases. In like manner acute nephritis may occur 
following any organic disease. In small animals it frequently 
follows the ingestion of decayed foods, the preformed toxins 
are absorbed and eliminated through the kidneys, producing 
a severe form of acute nephritis. The same condition may 
result from absorption of products from wounds, from mange, 
eczema, etc., especially when extensive. 

Acute nephritis also develops from vegetable and mineral 
poisons, especially when introduced in rather large quantities. 
Such substances, as cantharides, carbolic acid, arsenic, oil 
of turpentine, extract of male fern, mercury preparations, 
etc., are eliminated via the kidneys and excite an acute inflam- 
mation. Birds (turkeys) often eat various insects, such as 
grasshoppers, caterpillars, the acrid substances of which are 
absorbed from the intestinal tract and induce the inflamma- 
tion. This same condition has been observed in cats from 
eating large numbers of insects (grasshoppers). 

Injuries in small animals are very common, such as blows 
across the back in the region of the kidneys, being run oxcv 



390 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

by vehicles, falling, etc., which may result in direct injuries 
to the kidneys and eventually in acute inflammation. Sub- 
jection to extreme cold has been considered one of the etio- 
logical factors: It probably reduces the general resistance 
of the renal tissue so that infectious substances have a greater 
effect upon it. This has been observed, especially in puppies 
and kittens that have been kept in damp, cold kennels. The 
same thing is found in hunting dogs after being forced to 
wade or swim through cold water. 

Pathology.— This is usually divided into three classes as 
follows : 

(a) Parenchymatous nephritis, in which the primary inflam- 
matory changes are most pronounced in the parenchyma of 
the kidney. This is characterized by only slight swelling, 
the capsule more easily removable, and on cut section a 
grayish or dull color is noted. Sometimes there will be 
observed grayish-red or yellowish-brown spots. The medul- 
lary substance is h^^eremic, often dark red in color and the 
Malpighian bodies are quite prominent, while the balance 
of the organ is either normal or of a soft consistency. 

Microscopically the veins and capillaries are enlarged, 
congested, granular and fibrous deposits between the urinif- 
erous tubules, and epithelial casts, cells, fatty degeneration 
with swelling and opacity. 

(b) Hemorrhagic parenchymatous nephritis, which is char- 
acterized by a large number of red points giving the external 
appearance of the organ a dark red color, dull gray on 
section, blotches of red and in the medullary portion a 
deep red. 

Microscopically the veins and capillaries are found engorged 
with blood, hemorrhages appearing in the adjacent tissues. 

(c) Diffuse Acute Nephritis. — Very noticeable is the in- 
crease in size and weight of the organ, sometimes two or 
three times larger than normal. The tissues are soft and 
friable. The capsule is easily removed, and the external 
surface a bright red color with some yellowish or gray patches. 

Microscopically there will be found enlargement of all 
vessels with extensive extravasation of blood into the tissues, 
leukocyte casts in the dilated urinary ducts, and extensive 



INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS— NEPHRITIS 391 

cellular infiltration between them. The glomeruli are often 
filled with blood and covered with bloody extravasations. 

Symptoms.— The general symptoms are loss or suppression 
of the appetite, slight elevation of the body temperature, 
pulse strong and hard at first, later weak and rapid; frequently 
vomiting in the dog and cat. Constipation during the early 
stages, followed later by diarrhea, is prominent in most 
cases. 

Most animals have difficulty in walking (stiff gait) as 
the movement of the body tends to compress or move the 
kidneys, hence pain is induced. During the early stages of 
the disease there are frequently noticed paroxj^sms of pain, 
especially when the animal is first moved, or palpated over 
the region of the kidneys. On standing they assume a 
stretched attitude in order to relieve the tension on the dis- 
eased organ. Frequently in walking the limb on the side 
affected will be dragged or the forward step shortened. It 
has been observed in male animals that one testicle will be 
drawn higher than the other. 

The changes in the urine form the most characteristic 
symptom. Usually at first there is suppression, with very 
scanty flow of urine, highly colored, containing some blood, 
albumin and tube casts. The total quantity passed in twenty- 
four hours is greatly reduced, specific gravity high, of a 
thicker consistency than normal, often slimy and turbid. 
Hematuria may develop. 

Microscopically the urine is found to contain urinary casts 
in large numbers, white and red blood corpuscles and numer- 
ous epithelial cells. The urine is voided a few drops at a time, 
especially in the dog, with pain (strangury) . 

Uremic symptoms are noted in some cases. The stoppage 
of the flow of urine from the swelling of the tissue of the 
kidneys, compression and filling of the ducts with exuded 
casts, causes a retention of waste products and a lack of 
secretion, hence an accumulation of urea and uric acid, and 
other decomposition products sufficient to produce marked 
symptoms. In the dog these symptoms develop rather 
rapidly in the form of weakness, staggering gait, convulsions, 
irregular temperature and coma. 



392 DISEASES OF THE KIDXEYS 

Diagnosis.— This condition is very frequently mistaken for 
inflammation of some other abdominal organ, especially 
peritonitis, enteritis, cystitis, or metritis. It is possible to 
make a difterential diagnosis by a careftil examination of the 
animal, by observing the character and amount of urine 
voided and a microscopic examination of the urine. 

Course.— The cotu-se is usually acute: occasionally the dis- 
ease terminates in chronic nephritis. 

Prognosis.— On the whole the prognosis is unfavorable, the 
patient often dying in six to ten days. ^Mien the s^inptoms 
of lu-emia are present, the prognosis should be considered 
A'ery unfavorable. 

HreditmeTit.— Dietetic— Yov the dog and cat a milk diet is 
of the greatest importance. Avoid the giving of irritating 
foods and drugs. 

J/f(/zVa/.— Establish diaphoresis as early as possible. This 
can be done by the use of warm baths, steaming the animal, 
and rubbing the skin. Wrap the animal in warm blankets. 
Diaphoretics, such as pilocarpin. are not very satisfactory in 
small animals. 

Purgatives are to be recommended. ^lagnesium sulphate 
(10.0-16.0) every fotu- hours until active catharsis takes place 
is useftil. Small doses of arecalin 0.003-0.005 may be 
given to the dog to hasten early evacuation of the bowels. 

Calomel, owing to its prompt action, is excellent for dogs. 
In heart weakness, dtiring the secondary stages of the dis- 
ease, digitalis fluidextract '0.1-0.15) should be used. Alka- 
line diuretics, as potassium acetate, are to be used in 
small doses. Diuretin has been found to be valuable as a 
dim-etic. 

In con^1llsions following tiremia. potassitun bromid or 
morphin for dogs should be administered. Tannic acid (0.1) 
is highly recommended. 

Chronic Nephritis — Definition.— A chronic inflammation of 
kidney, which the may be divided clinically into two groups, 
viz.: 

(a) Chronic parench^-matous nephritis, characterized by 
marked dropsy and during the early stages of the disease, on 
postmortem, by the large white kidney. In the later stages 



CHRONIC NEPHRITIS 393 

of the disease the kidney usually is small— small white 
kidney. 

(6) Chronic interstitial nephritis, characterized by cardio- 
vascular changes which are pronounced, but only in a few 
instances will dropsical conditions appear. 

Etiology.— It has been observed that chronic nephritis in 
some instances follows the acute form of the disease. This is 
true no doubt only in the subacute or milder acute cases. 

It may develop gradually as an insidious disease without 
any apparent cause. 

Injurious substances in the form of irritants, Avhich may 
be either parasitic or chemical in nature, in being eliminated 
via the kidneys, may produce sufficient irritation to induce a 
chronic inflammation. Certain drugs when administered 
for some time (turpentine) or absorbed from the skin, as in 
the treatment of mange (coal-tar compounds), will produce 
irritation resulting in chronic nephritis. 

It may follow some of the infectious diseases, such as dis- 
temper in the dog and cat. The excess of waste products 
together with the various toxins formed are eliminated in 
such quantity that they irritate the renal tissue. 

Subjection to extremes in temperature (cold or heat) dis- 
turbs metabolism, which increases the action of the kidneys, 
and the amount of albuminous decomposition may be a 
cause. In other cases no apparent cause can be found. 

Pathology. — (a) In chronic parenchymatous nephritis sev- 
eral varieties have been recognized. 

The large white kidney is characterized by enlargement, 
the capsule very thin. When cut longitudinally the cortex 
is swollen and yellowish-white in color, mottled on surface 
with a number of opaque spots. The pyramids of the kidney 
are deeply congested. 

The small white kidney in which the connective tissue is 
found thickened, and a gradual reduction in the enlargement 
of the parenchymatous tissue. On cut surface the resistance 
is much greater than the other type, the cortex is much 
smaller and contains a number of white or whitish-yellow 
spots. These whitish-yellow spots represent areas of fatty 
degeneration. The interstitial tissue is changed, enlarged, 



394 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

many of the glomeruli destroyed, degeneration of the epi- 
thelium in the convoluted tubules, and the arteries are much 
thickened. Microscopically the epithelium is found granular 
and fatty; the tubules of the cortical substances are enlarged 
and filled with tube casts. Hyaline changes are found in the 
epithelial cells. The glomeruli are found enlarged, the cap- 
sules are thicker than normal, and the capillaries show some 
hyaline changes. The interstitial tissue is increased to some 
extent. 

(b) In chronic interstitial nephritis the kidneys are small, 
contracted, and may be reduced to nearly one-half their 
normal size. The capsule of the kidney is thickened, very 
much adherent, and when stripped off carries with it some 
of the cortical substance. Small cysts are often found on 
the surface. On cut section the kidney is found reddish or 
dark red in color. The cortex is very thin. The surface of 
the kidney is uneven with numerous small projections. 
Sometimes the kidneys are lobulated, the consistency is hard, 
and the general texture almost semicartilaginous. The inter- 
stitial connective tissue is far in excess of the parenchy- 
matous structure. 

Microscopically there is noted a great increase in the 
connective tissue, a degeneration and atrophy of the secreting 
structures, both glomerular and tubal. " The increase in the 
fibrous elements is widely distributed throughout the kidney, 
although in most cases found more extensively in the cor- 
tical portion. The glomerular changes are found marked, 
numbers of them being completely degenerated into hyaline 
substances. The tubules show changes in the epithelium, in 
some instances greatly atrophied, in others the epithelium 
has entirely disappeared. 

The bloodvessels (arteries) in the advanced cases show 
advanced sclerosis. The changes take place in the entire 
vessel wall. In chronic nephritis we find in a great many 
cases in dogs organic changes in the heart (hypertrophy). 

Symptoms.— This condition does not present very definite 
symptoms until the disease is quite well advanced. The first 
symptoms noted are those of a general nature, such as par- 
tial or complete loss of appetite, weakness, fatigue, etc. 



CHRONIC NEPHRITIS 395 

In parenchyijiatous nephritis the secondary symptoms 
are characterized by dropsical swellings appearing on the 
limbs, breast, and particularly ascites. The animal shows 
general emaciation, pale membranes, and all the signs of 
general cachexia, A careful examination must be made in 
such cases to distinguish from circulatory disturbances. The 
urine should always be carefully examined. We will find 
in these cases the amount of urine decreased and its specific 
gravity increased. The urine will also be found to contain 
numerous casts, epithelium, fat cells, and in some cases red 
blood corpuscles. The pulse will be found accelerated, tense 
and hard; the heart beat is strong, palpitating, and in smaller 
breeds may shake the entire body. Marked dulness over the 
region of the heart is noted indicating hypertrophy. The 
temperature is slightly elevated until in the later stages of 
the disease when it will be found to be subnormal. In the 
very late stages symptoms of uremia appear, with rapid 
emaciation and exhaustion, and the animal soon succumbs. 

In chronic interstitial nephritis the symptoms are some- 
what different. The most noticeable difference is in the 
character and composition of the urine. The amount of 
urine is increased, the specific gravity very low, and the 
albumin content is greatly diminished. There is compensa- 
tory hypertrophy of the heart, and if this compensating 
action is sufficient, the animal may live for some time. How- 
ever, sooner or later there will be insufficient heart action, 
the pulse will become weak, feeble, and ascites and edemas 
appear. The animal gradually becomes weaker and finally 
dies from exhaustion. 

Diagnosis.— This is only possible in cases where a careful 
examination is made of the urine, together with a pains- 
taking general examination. We must differentiate chronic 
nephritis from primary circulatory disturbances. 

Prognosis.— In both forms of chronic nephritis, the prog- 
nosis should be considered unfavorable, because in the 
majority of cases the condition is quite well advanced before 
a diagnosis is made. Even in apparently mild cases marked 
pathological changes in the kidneys are often found. 



396 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

Treatment.— jDtefe/ic— Improve the general condition of 
the animal by giving plenty of milk and easily digested food. 
Avoid highly nitrogenous foods. 

Medical— The first thing to be considered from a medical 
standpoint is to sustain and strengthen the heart action by 
giving small doses of fluidextract digitalis (0.1 to 0.15) daily. 
As a diuretic, administer diuretin (0.2 to 0.4) twice daily. 
Calomel is useful in dogs to keep the bowels open and assist 
in the elimination of waste products. 

In dropsical conditions (ascites) small doses of pilocarpin 
(dog and cat 0.003-0.01) may be administered once daily. 
Small doses of potassium iodid (0.06-0.2) are to be admin- 
istered as a resorbent once daily to dogs. 

Surgical— Y\ hen ascites threatens the life of the animal 
the fluid should be removed with a trocar. (See x\bdominal 
Puncture.) 

Purulent Nephritis. — Kidney Abscess. — Definition.— An in- 
flammation of the kidneys resulting from infection and 
characterized by the formation of either numerous small 
purulent foci, or larger abscesses. 

Etiology.— A very common cause of this condition is the 
infection reaching the renal tissue from the blood stream 
(hematogenous). This mode of infection in most cases 
follows diseases of other organs, or pyemia, such as endo- 
metritis puerperalis in the bitch ^.nd cat; mammitis, pneu- 
monia, phlegmonous pharyngitis in the cat; purulent bron- 
chial catarrh, distemper, and, in puppies, infection at birth. 
It has been found that purulent nephritis will be produced 
in animals without any particular focus of infection. In 
cases of general reduced resistance the organisms may find 
their way to the renal tissue, develop and form abscesses. 

Traumatic causes are quite common in small animals as 
injuries over the region of the kidneys are frequent. These 
may bring about the condition by reducing the local resist- 
ance and the accompanying inflammation makes a favorable 
place for the development of organisms which are present 
in the blood stream. 

Urogenic causes are perhaps the most frequent. The 



PURULENT NEPHRITIS 397 

infection spreads to the organ via the bladder, ureters, and 
pelvis of the kidne}^ 

In small animals subjection to extremes in temperature 
has been mentioned as an indirect factor in bringing about 
the condition. 

Pathology.— We recognize two forms of purulent nephritis 
on postmortem: 

Diffuse Purulent Nephritis {Nei)hritis purulenta jmnctata, 
diffusa). — In this form the kidneys are enlarged; numerous 
small white spots or yellowish dots are present which are sur- 
rounded by a reddish zone. On close examination the puru- 
lent masses may be easily removed. These foci of infection 
may be found quite generally distributed in one or both 
kidne^^s. 

Microscopically there is found a large number of pus cells 
in the foci of infection, cellular infiltration with large numbers 
of bacteria present in the tissue surrounding them. The 
epithelial cells show fatty degeneration, the glomeruli 
surrounded by pus, and the tubules partially filled with 
leukocytes, red blood cells, and casts. 

Nephritis Apostematosa (Renal abscess).— Y^e find in this 
form abscesses of varying size, which may be a single abscess 
formed from an embolus, or the kidney tissue break down to 
form a very large abscess (pyonephrosis). The connective 
tissue increases around the abscess forming a thick wall. 

Symptoms.— Clinically it is quite diflScult to recognize this 
condition. In cases which originate by metastasis we will 
observe the symptoms of the primary condition, such as 
pyemia, endometritis, etc. 

Should the disorder develop rapidly, there will be found 
practically the same symptoms as in acute diffuse nephritis. 
(See Acute Nephritis.) 

In dogs the patient becomes very stiff*, refuses to move, 
shows pain on palpation over the region of the kidneys; in 
some cases a distinct enlargement on one or both sides high 
in the lumbar region can be determined. In examining such 
cases the animal should be placed in a standing position, 
both hands used, one on either side of the animal, and the 



398 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

palpation performed with gentle pressure. Micturition is 
painful, very often only small quantities of urine being voided. 
As the disease progresses more pronounced general symptoms 
of weakness, exhaustion, and uremia will be observed. 
Animals often die very early from general sepsis. 

Diagnosis.— An accurate diagnosis is very difficult. In 
many cases the disease is not recognized until a postmortem 
examination is made. The symptoms, including careful 
palpation coupled with examination of the urine, usually 
suffice for the diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is bad as the disease is usually 
in an advanced stage before being recognized. 

Treatment.— In cases of advanced renal abscess there is 
little that can be done. The operation of remo\dng one 
kidney does little good as both are usually diseased. Uremia 
commonly follows the removal of the kidney when both are 
involved. Symptomatic treatment is about all that can be 
done. Heart stimulants, laxatives, etc., may be tried. (See 
Acute Nephritis.) 

INFLAMMATION OF THE RENAL PELVIS. 

Pyelitis. 

Definition.— Inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney. 

Etiology. — Pyelitis may result from the spread of inflamma- 
tion from adjacent parts or organs, such as from the kidney 
(pyelonephritis) or from the bladder (pyelocystitis) . 

The presence of urinary calculi in the pehds of the kidney 
mechanically irritates the membrane and leads to an inflam- 
mation. 

In the course of infectious diseases (distemper in the dog 
and cat; cholera in birds) this condition develops on account 
of the infectious or poisonous matter excreted from the body 
via the kidneys irritating the mucous membrane. 

Excretion of toxic materials (poisons of different kinds) 
would act in a similar manner. On account of the frequency 
of poisoning in small animals this is a very common cause. 

Parasites often cause pyelitis, especially in dogs 
(Dioctophyme renale). The parasites cause an intense inflam- 



INFLAMMATION OF THE RENAL PELVIS 399 

mation of the pelvis of the kidney which may involve the 
entire organ. 

Retention of urine from either disease of the ureters or 
the bladder. This leads to an inflammation of the pelvis of 
the kidney from decomposition of the urine. 

Pathology.— Catarrhal inflammation of the pelvis of the 
kidney is characterized by swelling and redness, some hem- 
orrhage, and later, as the condition becomes chronic, the 
membrane becomes thickened, lighter in color and covered 
with thick mucus or pus. In severe cases numerous hemor- 
rhagic foci will be observed, with sometimes extensive hemor- 
rhage, or, if the irritation has been severe, ulcers will be 
found (pyeloulcerosa). In cases which have resulted from 
obstruction to the flow of urine, we may find dilatation of 
the pelvis of the kidneys, with the presence of urine (hydro- 
nephrosis). 

Symptoms.— This disease does not present a clear clinical 
picture; it can easily be confused with inflammation of the 
kidneys or adjacent parts. The general symptoms are a 
disturbed general condition of the animal, frequent micturi- 
tion, which is more or less painful, stifle, painful gait, loss of 
appetite and slight elevation of temperature. The urine 
shows changes which should be considered. It will be found 
to contain much mucus, pus, organic sediment, long-tailed 
epithelial cells, having pointed projections on the ends, 
which come from the membrane of the renal pelvis. The 
urine should be examined for parasite eggs; this will often 
assist in locating the seat of the inflammation. Small granules 
are found when calculi are present. Careful palpation as in 
chronic nephritis may assist in locating the inflammation. 

Diagnosis.— The microscopic examination of the urine is 
the best means of making an accurate diagnosis. The pres- 
ence of the peculiar, molar-shaped epithelial cells may be 
considered significant. Pyelitis must be difl'erentiated from 
inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bladder or 
ureters. The presence of parasite eggs (Dioctophyme renale) 
in the urine will be indicative of involvement of the renal 
pelvis. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis depends to some extent u})()u tlic 
causative factor. In most cases it is not very favorable. 



400 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

Treatment.— 7)ieM?*c.— Milk should be the principal food. 
No irritating materials should be given. 

if efea/.— Diluents in the form of water or milk should 
be administered frequently (2 or 3 times daily) to assist in 
increasing the volume of fluids eliminated via kidneys to 
remove accumulated products. 

Disinfectants in the form of sodium salicylate (dog, 0.1- 
2.0; cat, 0.05-0.1) should be given twice daily. Urotropin 
(0.5-1.0) three times daily with plenty of water or milk is 
useful. 

UREMIA. 

Definition.— A toxemia developing during the course of 
certain diseases, such as nephritis or in conditions associated 
with retention of the urine. The nature of the poisons 
retained in the body is not definitely known. They may 
be normal urine compounds, or the result of abnormal 
metabolism. 

Etiology.— Uremia is produced by the retention in the body 
of waste materials which should be eliminated by the kidneys. 
In the development of certain diseases, such as acute and 
chronic nephritis, or obstruction to some part of the urinary 
passages, the urine is not properly excreted but is retained 
in the blood. If due to stoppage of the outflow, the back 
pressure produced inhibits further secretion, hence the 
products of metabolism accumulate in the body. 

A cause is rupture of some of the urinary organs (kidneys, 
ureter or bladder) which is of frequent occurrence in the dog 
from injuries. The urine will flow out into the adjacent 
tissues, or peritoneal cavity, to be absorbed by the circula- 
tion, producing in the course of a few hours marked symptoms 
of acute poisoning. 

Symptoms.— Clinically we recognize two forms: (a) Acute 
uremia, and (b) chronic uremia. 

Acute Ure7nia. —In the dog the symptoms usually begin 
with chills, trembling of the muscles, staggering gait, followed 
in a short time by stupor, the animal finally lapsing into 
complete unconsciousness. Frequently there will be noted 



UREMIA 401 

during the development of uremia certain nervous symptoms, 
such as contractions of groups of muscles (clonic spasms, 
epileptiform convulsions) followed by unconsciousness. 
Yelping or howling is often a prominent symptom during 
the nervous attacks. 

The respirations are slow, often difficult; edema of the 
lungs usually exists. 

The temperature is at first elevated, but later becomes 
subnormal, sometimes as low as 96° F. 

Vomiting in the dog and cat is a frequent symptom as 
is diarrhea. The discharges from the stomach and bowels 
usually have a uriniferous odor. 

Chronic Uremia.— Chronic uremia develops from chronic 
diseases of the urinary organs, particularly chronic nephritis, 
and from long standing cases of partial urine retention due 
to some obstruction in the urinary tract. 

The most prominent symptoms of chronic uremia are: 
Digestive disturbances, such as gastro-intestinal catarrh, 
diarrhea, vomiting, etc., without any apparent cause; dis- 
turbances in the nervous system as dulness, and at times epi- 
leptiform convulsions, which are usually mild and recurrent. 

Diagnosis.— This is made by careful examination of the 
patient, observation of the symptoms, and examination of 
the urinary organs. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis depends upon the primary con- 
dition producing the uremia. In acute uremia it is unfavor- 
able, most cases terminating fatally. 

Chronic uremia is not so immediately fatal. The long 
course of the disease, which suffers exacerbations and remis- 
sions, eventually, however, terminates in death. 

Treatment.— ilfefea/.— Medical treatment consists in the 
administration of laxatives to assist the elimination of urea 
compounds via the bowels. Diuretics are used except in 
those cases where there is some impediment to the outflow 
of urine. 

In chronic cases, after the uremic symptoms begin to dis- 
appear, tonics and alteratives are indicated. 

Surgical.—^NhGre an obstruction exists in some portion 
of the urinary tract, which interferes with the outflow of 
26 



402 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

urine an operation may be indicated. Rupture of the bladder 
or lu-eters should receive immediate attention and the torn 
or injured part sutured. 

CALCULI IN THE KIDNEY. 

Nephrolithiasis. 

Definition.— The presence of urinary stones in the pelvis 
of the kidney. 

Etiology.— Calculi in the renal pelvis are not frequent in 
small animals. They are far more common in the bladder. 
The principal condition for the formation of urolithic deposits 
is that the urine contains excess of salts, or that insoluble or 
slightly soluble salts are formed in it. In the elimination 
of these salts they become gradually deposited around some 
foreign material. The center or nucleus of a calculus is 
usually an epithelial cell, bit of mucus, pus, a blood cell, cast, 
etc. In some cases the food which is rich in salts of various 
kinds will hasten the formation of calculi. In certain dis- 
tricts where the water is rich in mineral substances calculi 
are more common, no doubt due to the excess salts taken 
in and eliminated. Inflammatory diseases of the urinary 
passages, or in retention of urine from any cause, will often 
lead to the formation of urinary calculi by changing the 
character of the urine and the salts contained therein. 

Pathology.— Stones in the pelvis of the kidney, if small, 
may not produce much change in the mucosa, except slight 
abrasion and irritation. ^^Tien larger they may fill up the 
entire calices or the whole renal pelvis, and can lead to marked 
pathological changes such as extensive inflammation, hemor- 
rhage, and sometimes marked distention of the pelvis. In 
small animals the calculi usually consist of ammoniacal 
magnesium phosphate, small quantities of calcium phosphate 
or carbonate, some uric acid and its salts. Cystic calculi are 
also occasionally seen. They are small, soft, and have a 
shiny surface. 

Symptoms.— The clinical picture of kidney stones is very 
similar to that of pyelitis, except the pain is usually more 



CALCULI IN THE KIDNEY 403 

severe. The condition may be entirely overlooked during 
the life of the patient. The most pronounced symptoms are 
sudden attacks of colic, which come on after running, jump- 
ing, or falling, which dislodge the stone and occlude the 
ureter. The colicky symptoms are howling, whining and 
crying, which continue until the stone either passes into the 
bladder or back into the pelvis of the kidney. A prolonga- 
tion of the retention of urine may result in uremic symptoms. 
Periodic recurrence of the colicky pains is somewhat charac- 
teristic of this condition. The urine when examined micro- 
scopically will be found to contain pus cells, epithelial cells, 
and often very small fragments of stones. Blood cells are 
also common as small hemorrhages frequently take place. 
In the dog a direct examination can be made by performing 
a laparotomy which permits of the kidney being seen and 
felt. If calculi are present, they will be easily recognized by 
their hardness and shape. 

Diagnosis.— The general symptoms are not sufficient for 
an accurate diagnosis. It should be differentiated from other 
diseases of the kidney. The urine should be carefully exam- 
ined. In doubtful cases a laparotomy may be performed. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis depends on the size and number 
of stones present and whether or not the condition is uni- or 
bilateral. When the stones are small and the condition con- 
fined to one kidney, the prognosis is much more favorable. 
Owing to the difficulties encountered in removing the stones 
the prognosis is usually unfavorable. 

Tie&tment.— Dietetic— Food should be given that contains 
but a small quantity of salts. Plenty of water should be 
allowed but the same precaution must be observed in regard 
to the salt content. 

Medical.— The various compounds used to dissolve calculi 
have not proved very satisfactory. Large quantities of 
carbonated water may be tried; it has proved of value in 
some cases. 

Surgical.— Surgical treatment has proved of practical 
importance in the dog, and has been successfully accom- 
plished in a number of cases. If, after an explorative lapa- 
rotomy of the kidney, it is found normal, showing no evidence 



404 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

of hydronephrosis, nephroUthotomy should be performed. 
There are two methods used in this operation, as follows: 

(a) A longitudinal incision is made at the convex border 
of the kjidney, at which point the vascularity is at a minimum, 
into the pehds. In case hemorrhage is severe, clamping the 
renal artery will control it. By compressing the kidney 
longitudinally the incision will be held open and with a 
blunt curette the stones are removed. Care should be taken 
to be sure that the renal pelvis is freed of all the calculi, 
and a blunt probe of small caliber inserted into the ureter to 
be certain of a free passage into the bladder. Normal salt 
solution, which has been previously sterilized, is used to 
cleanse the cut surface. The wound is then stitched with 
sterile silk, using two or three interrupted sutures. Care 
must be taken not to use too much force in drawing the wound 
together as the resulting swelling will tear out the sutures. 
Return the organ to its proper position. Healing should take 
place per primam. 

{b) The other method is to open the pelvis of the kidney 
direct. Make an incision at one side of the pelvis, in about 
its middle portion, of sufficient size to remove the calculi. 
After all the stones have been removed and all the fluids 
absorbed by sterile gauze, the wound is stitched carefully, 
using plenty of sutures so that the edges of the wound will 
be thoroughly approximated. This must be done carefully 
to avoid fistula following the operation. If, however, the 
kidney is found diseased (hydronephrosis) nephrectomy 
should be performed, as follows: Laparotomy is performed. 
The kidney is then freed of its covering, gently pulled toward 
the wound, and doubly ligated at its pedicle, so as to prevent 
serious hemorrhage. Care should be taken to get the ligature 
securely in place to prevent its slipping off after the abdom- 
inal wound is closed. Double ligation is safest, ligating the 
vein and artery separately. 

After-treatment consists in the administration of general 
stimulants, and restricting the diet for four or five days to 
milk, or milk and eggs. 



DROPSY OF THE KIDNEY 405 

DROPSY OF THE KIDNEY. 

Hydronephrosis. Cystic Kidney. 

Definition.— A chronic condition in which urine collects in 
the pelvis of the kidney or the kidney proper, leading to 
functional disturbances of the organ. 

Etiology. — (a) Mechanically by some impediment to the 
flow of urine from one or both kidneys. The urine is dammed 
up in the pelvis of the kidney with a gradually increasing 
pressure. As the pressure of the urine increases, the loss in 
the secreting power of the organ is more manifest, and event- 
ually if the pressure is constant or increased, the function 
of the organ may be entirely lost. The parts of the urinary 
passages afl'ected by the impediment gradually dilate and 
the renal tissue atrophies, so that the condition anatomically 
stops as no more urine is secreted. 

(6) A number of conditions which cause partial stoppage of 
the flow of urine will cause cystic kidney. The most frequent 
are: (^atarrhal inflammation of the ureters, bladder, or 
prostate glands; the presence of calculi in some portion of the 
tract which interferes with the passage of urine. 

(c) Sometimes the condition is congenital; there is either 
no opening through the ureter, or it is otherwise anatomi- 
cally deficient. This allows the urine first formed to accu- 
mulate until the backward pressure is sufficient to stop renal 
secretion. 

(r/) Compression of the urethra and neck of the bladder 
by adjacent new growths. The new growths interfere with 
the flow of urine and cause it to accumulate in the pelvis of 
the kidney. 

(c) Paralysis of the urinary bladder which allows the 
urine to collect and lead to back pressure. 

(/) In chronic inflammation of the kidneys some of the 
urinary tubules become constricted at certain points by the 
contraction of the interstitial tissue, which undergoes atrophy, 
causing the canals which are attached to the IMalpighian 
bodice to become dilated. If the urine continues to be 
secreted it accumulates and forms small retention cysts. 
These cysts may be found singly or .in large numbers in the 



406 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

kidneys. This type of the condition is not found as often as 
the other form. 

Pathology. — We find varying degrees of cystic kidney. In 
the earher cases will be noted only a dilation of the calices 
and pelvis of the kidney with mild pathological changes in 
the lining membrane. In the more advanced cases will be 
noted distention of the pelvis of the kidney with compression 
of the renal tissue so that the atrophy is well marked. In 
some cases the renal tissue will be practically destroyed, and 
the kidney will be represented by a soft undulating mass. In 
dogs the kidneys may be so enlarged that distention of the 
abdominal wall appears. 

Symptoms.— Frequently on autopsy cystic kidney involv- 
ing one of the kidneys, will be found which has not been 
noticed during the life of the animal, the other kidney having 
performed the function of both. When both kidneys are 
involved, however, a change in the quantity of urine will be 
noticeable. On carefu) examination of the patient (dog) 
very frequently one of the kidneys, or in rare cases both of 
them, will be found much enlarged and can be easily palpated 
through the abdominal wall; cases appearing where the 
abdominal enlargement is noticeable by observing the stand- 
ing patient from the rear and carefully comparing both sides. 
General symptoms of weakness, stiffness, etc., are shown in 
the more advanced cases. Generally, however, cystic kidney 
does not produce characteristic symptoms during life. 

Diagnosis.— This is made by careful examination of the 
patient, observing the flow of urine, and finally where neces- 
sary an explorative laparotomy. 

Prognosis.— Favorable when unilateral as it may not affect 
the general health of the patient; unfavorable when bilateral. 

Treatment.— The early indication in the treatment is to 
relieve the impediment to the flow of urine. The ureters, 
bladder, and urethra should be examined and if diseased 
proper treatment should be given. If the outflow of urine 
can be reestablished, the disorder will be relieved. If this 
is impossible, nephrectomy should be performed if the con- 
dition is unilateral. (For Nephrectomy, see Renal Calculi.) 
No other treatment has been found of value. 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE KIDNEY 407 

AMYLOID KIDNEY. 

This condition is of no practical importance except to the 
student in pathology. It is not common in the small animals 
and the symptoms are very obscure. 

TUMORS IN THE KIDNEY. 

In small animals the kidneys are not commonly affected 
by primary tumor formations. There will be found: Sar- 
comata, carcinomata, and adenomata, occasionally resulting 
as secondary growths from some other organ or tissues. 
Tuberculosis of the kidney has been noted in a few cases in 
the dog. It may be either metastatic or urogenic in origin. 

It is not usually possible to recognize tumors during life. 
They sometimes produce disturbance in kidney function 
and may become metastatic. 

Treatment.— Treatment must be symptomatic. 

ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE KIJDNEY. 

Dioctophyme renale {Eustrongylus Gigas),— This is the 
most common parasite found in the kidney of small animals 
where it is confined almost exclusively to the dog. Its loca- 
tion is usually in the pelvis of the kidney where in some cases 
it produces marked clinical symptoms; in others but little 
disturbance results considering the degree of pathological 
change induced. 

Dioctophyme renale is a blood-red worm with a number 
of fine transverse stripes, tapering slightly at the extremities. 
The mouth is triangular in shape, and surrounded by six 
small papillae. The male is 13 cm. to 40 cm. long, and 4 mm. 
to 6 mm. in diameter; tail is obtuse, terminated by a patelli- 
form, membranous, entire pouch without radi?e, and traversed 
by a very slender, single spicule. Female, 20 cm. to 1 m. 
long, and 5 mm. to 12 mm. in diameter; tail is obtuse and 
slightly curved; a single ovary; vulva very near the mouth. 
Ova ovoid and brownish, 68 to 80 microns long, and 40 to 43 
microns broad. (Neuman.) 



408 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

The life cycle of the Dioctophyme renale is not entirely 
known. The ovum is expelled from the body of the host, 
and undergoes further de^Tlopment in water or damp soil. 
It requires some time for these changes to take place (from 
three to six months). The embryo may live and be active 
after one year to eighteen months. The embryo is 240 
microns long and 14 microns broad, cylindrical, and gradually 
tapering posteriorly; the head is pointed, mouth terminal 
and not provided with papilla^, but with a small projection 
which no doubt serves the embryo as an organ of penetration. 
The intermediate host has not been fully determined. The 
dog takes the embryo into the intestinal tract, where it 
undergoes further development, and the embryo migrates to 
the organs and tissues. It may also be introduced into the 
urinary passages direct. The favorite seat is the kidney, 
although it may be found in the abdominal cavity, liver, etc. 
There still exists some doubt as to the exact method of migra- 
tion of the embryo. 

The parasite after reaching its destination, develops and 
produces marked changes in the pelvis of the kidney, and in 
a number of instances completely destroys the organ. In 
cases of early invasion there will be found inflammation with 
hemorrhages, and purulent material. More advanced cases 
will reveal a secondary inflammation with destruction of the 
renal tissue, often transforming the kidney into a sac with 
thick walls. The worm or worms will be found coiled up in 
this sac. The number of parasites found will vary. In 
most cases only one; in others two or more, even as high as 
four have been found. 

Symptoms.— There may be no symptoms during life. In 
a case of the author's in which four parasites were found, and 
the renal tissue completely destroyed, the dog showed no 
symptoms. The worms were found on autopsy. The animal 
was in excellent condition and apparently in the best of 
health. However, in some cases, symptoms are observed. 
Severe pain, restlessness, nervousness and even rabiform 
phenomena have been observed. The dog may show^ spinal 
curvature due to pain on the affected side. The general 
condition is often interfered w^ith, the animal becoming 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE KIDNEY 409 

emaciated and exhausted. The urine is voided with difficulty, 
containing blood and pus. Examined microscopically it 
will reveal a pyelitis, and the eggs of the parasite. In some 
instances after the renal tissue is completely destroyed, the 
parasite will pass into the urethra where it becomes lodged. 
It may burrow through the urethral wall and ultimately 
lodge in either the pelvic fascia or work forward into the 
abdominal cavity. Eventually it will produce inflammation 
in the new location, resulting in abscess, perforation and 
external fistula. Peritonitis may result following its entrance 
into the abdominal cavity. 

Diagnosis.— An accurate diagnosis can be made only by 
finding the eggs in the urine by microscopic examination. 
The symptoms would be much the same as those in pyelitis, 
etc. 

Prognosis.— When the parasite has produced sufficient 
pathological changes to bring about emaciation and exhaus- 
tion, the prognosis is unfavorable. 

Treatment.— 3fe6?^ca/.— Anthelmintics are advisable, and 
especially those which will be eliminated via the kidneys. 
Turpentine (5.0 to 10.0) repeated in forty-eight hours, may 
be given, if necessary. 

Surgical.— luSipsirotomy may be performed, and direct 
examination made. If the renal tissue is destroyed, nephrec- 
tomy would be indicated. (See Renal Calculi.) 

Other Parasites in the Kidney.— A few other species of 
parasites are seen occasionally, but as they produce no effect 
upon the host they are of no clinical importance. 

Cysticercus cellulosse and several forms of coccidia have 
been found on autopsy. 

Birds are not uncommonly affected by coccidia. The 
Pvimeria avium (Coccidium tenellum) is the one most com- 
monly found in poultry. Some general disturbances, such 
as depression and loss of appetite, have been noted. The 
birds die of uremic poisoning or exhaustion. 



CHAPTER II. 
DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 

Examination. —A thorough and complete examination of 
this organ may be made, especially in the dog, by palpation 
through the rectum, vagina, and abdominal walls; by lapa- 
rotomy (direct examination) and by examination of the urine. 

Palpation can be done satisfactorily only in the larger 
breeds when not too fat. When palpating through the 
abdominal wall place the animal in a standing position, and, 
with one hand on either side of the lower abdominal wall, 
just anterior to the brim of the pubis, exert enough pressure 
to feel the bladder through the walls. In case inflammation 
is present pain will be evinced. The bladder wall be felt as 
a pear-shaped enlargement just anterior to the brim of the 
pubis, which is movable and extends forward a varying 
distance depending upon its distention. Care must be taken 
to differentiate between a distended bladder and other 
abnormalities which are commonly present in the abdominal 
cavity, such as ascites, fecal stasis, neoplasms, etc. 

Rectal palpation is done by first thoroughly cleansing the 
hand and the anal region with soap and water, followed by 
an application of boric acid solution (2 per cent.). The 
index finger is inserted through the anal opening as high up 
in the rectum as possible. The bladder can be felt as a 
distended body, projecting back into the pelvic inlet. Dif- 
ferentiation must be made betw^een a distended bladder and 
chronic or acute prostatitis which is quite common in old 
dogs. This can be done by considering the difference in 
position and density of the two bodies. Inflammatory 
conditions of the bladder, which are painful on pressure, and 
other enlargements such as tumors may be found in this 
location. 



EXAMINATION 411 

Vaginal palpation is possible in the larger breeds, and is 
performed in much the same manner as the rectal. The 
index finger should be inserted as far as possible, and if 
the bladder is distended it can be felt at the pelvic inlet, or 
if it is inflamed slight pressure will be very painful. Vaginitis, 
fecal accumulations in the rectum, and tumors should be 
differentiated. 

Laparotomy .—\i\ both the male and female dog it is quite 
possible, safe, and practical, to perform this operation under 
strict antiseptic precautions, so that a direct inspection of 
the bladder may be made. In the female the incision should 
be made just anterior to the pubis in the median line, and in 
the male to one side of the penis but close to the pubis. The 
incision should be made large enough (2 or 3 inches) so that 
the bladder may be exposed to view. Care should be 
observed in cutting through the peritoneum so as not to incise 
the bladder, as this organ when distended will extend forward 
in some cases beyond the umbilicus. The bladder is exam- 
ined for distention with urine, inflammation (acute and 
chronic), calculi, ulcerations, paralysis, etc. The laparotomy 
wound should be closed as usual. (See Laparotomy.) 

Examination of the Urine.— K sample of urine is best 
obtained by passing a catheter, provided there is any urine 
present, or by catching the urine in some receptacle as it is 
passed by the animal. Catheterization has been found to 
be the most practical method in these animals. This is done 
in the male animal by placing it in a dorsal position; restrain 
with hobbles. Choose a small sized human catheter, soften 
and disinfect by placing it for ten to fifteen minutes in warm 
lysol solution (2 per cent.). Expose the penis by pushing 
back the prepuce with the left hand, and with the right hand 
insert the catheter into the urethral opening. Two normal 
obstructions will be noted as the catheter is inserted: The 
first one as the catheter reaches the bone of the penis; the 
other as the catheter reaches the ischial arch. The former 
obstruction may be overcome by gentle pressure; to pass 
the ischial arch it will sometimes be necessary to partially 
remove the stilet, and with the finger direct the catheter 
over this point. The stilet should be gradually removed 



412 DISEASES OF THE BLADDER ' 

as the catheter is inserted. When it reaches the bladder, if 
urine is present, it will begin to flow out at once. In the 
female animal the catheter is passed without much difficulty. 
It is best to place the animal in a ventral position, securely 
fastened with hobbles; the same catheter as for the male 
animal can be used, but best to use a special metallic catheter, 
as it can be sterilized. To insert the catheter a vaginal 
speculum is used to dilate the vagina, which facilitates inser- 
tion into the urethral opening. 

The urine should be examined particularly for epithelial 
cells, pus, bacteria, red blood cells, etc. A differential 
examination should be made to determine whether the 
abnormal constituents of the urine come from the bladder or 
some other urinary organ. Note the reaction of the urine, 
its specific gravity, color, odor, consistency, etc. 

WOUNDS OF THE BLADDER. 

The bladder is the seat of several conditions produced by 
trauma in the small animals: Traumatic or spontaneous 
rupture, penetrating wounds from bullets or other objects, 
accidental cutting of the bladder during surgical operations. 

RUPTURE OF THE BLADDER. 

Rupture of the bladder is most often brought about by the 
animal being run over by vehicles, being kicked, falling, or 
may be due to overdistention when there is some impediment 
to the flow of urine. It can also occur as the result of the 
Avails being weakened by ulceration and other destructive 
processes. It has been observed in well broken house dogs 
when confined for too long a period, the bladder becoming 
distended and finally paralyzed, the continuance of the 
secretion eventually leading to rupture. 

Symptoms.— In rupture the symptoms develop in the 
course of a few hours. They are complete suppression of 
micturition, general symptoms of collapse, uriniferous odor 
of the exhaled air, subnormal temperature. The history is 
quite important, as often the history of an injury will assist 



RUPTURE OF THE BLADDER 413 

in the diagnosis of rupture. Passing the catheter will reveal 
the empty bladder. Examination by performing laparotomy 
should be done as early as possible in all cases where rupture 
is suspected. 

Prognosis.— After the development of general symptoms 
of collapse, subnormal temperature, etc., the condition is 
considered unfavorable. In cases of rupture where the 
diagnosis is established early, or, in accidental cutting 
through the walls of the bladder during surgical operations, 
the prognosis is quite favorable, provided prompt treatment 
is given. 

Treatment.— Jfec/ica/.— It is always advisable to administer 
stimulants at once. Strychnin in small doses (0.001). 

Surgical. —VroTn^t surgical treatment is absolutely essen- 
tial for a successful termination. 

The animal should be properly prepared for laparotomy 
(see Laparotomy), and the operation begun as soon as 
possible. The abdominal cavity should be emptied of all 
the retained urine, by flushing thoroughly with normal salt 
solution, which should be repeated two or three times to be 
sure that all the urine is removed. Locate the wound in the 
bladder and suture with interrupted and Lembert stitches. 
A milliner's needle will be found to be the best suturing needle. 
Place the stitches quite close together. Suture the abdominal 
wound in the usual manner. The after-treatment consists 
in placing the animal in a warm place and using stimulants 
for the first ten to twelve hours. Thoroughness in treating 
these cases will often bring excellent results. 

Wounds of the bladder, such as gunshot wounds, injury 
by compression without complete rupture, puncture by 
fragments of bone, etc., are found in the dog, and their 
seriousness depends upon the degree of injury. In very 
small punctured wounds and small bullet wounds, aside from 
the symptoms of cystitis, and stifl'ness, no serious com- 
plications set in and the animals make i)rompt recoveries. 
In the other forms when urine escapes into the peritoneal 
cavity and some hemorrhage takes ])lace, the case will soon 
assume serious complications. (See Ru})ture of the Bhulder.) 



414 DISEASES OF THE BLADDER 

RETENTION OF URINE IN THE BLADDER. 

Retentio Urince Vesicalis. 

Definition.— A collection of urine in the bladder, with 
subsequent distention of the bladder, ureters and pelvis of 
the kidney. Retention of urine is a symptom of a number of 
independent conditions or diseases which are found in the 
dog and cat, often leading to inflammation of the bladder, 
rupture, peritonitis, and uremia. 

Etiology.— Commonly caused by foreign bodies in the 
urethra or neck of the bladder interfering with the voiding 
of urine. These foreign bodies consist mainly of calculi of 
different kinds, sediment, fibrin, blood coagula, etc. 

In paralysis of the bladder, the walls of the bladder lose 
their tone. It may be due to affections of the spinal cord, 
trauma, various forms of cystitis, or to emaciation and general 
weakness, which allows the bladder to distend enormously. 
The urine in some cases will flow out in a small continuous 
stream after the distention has reached a certain degree. 

Compression of some portion of the urethra or neck of the 
bladder from without, such as neoplasms, acute and chronic 
prostatitis which is common in old dogs. Stricture of the 
urethra from injury or surgical operations; compression by 
distention of the uterus in pregnancy and diseases of this 
organ; diseases of the penis in the male animal are further 
causes. 

Spasmodic contraction of the sphincter vesicae, which may 
be due to sudden change in temperature especially cold 
(chills); to some medicinal agent as strychnin; to some 
diseases, cystitis, tetanus (rare). 

Symptoms.— The early indication of retention of urine is 
ischuria (suppression of urine), or painful micturition with 
only a small amount of urine passed. In the dog micturition 
is accompanied by severe straining. 

In sensitive small animals there is usually considerable 
abdominal pain, resembling acute indigestion or colic. The 
back is arched and the gait is stiff and straddling. 

In a short time, in case the condition is not relieved, the 
symptoms will increase in intensity until the bladder ruptures, 



RETENTION OF URINE IN THE BLADDER 415 

in which case the symptoms of pain will disappear for a time 
until peritonitis and uremia develop. If the bladder ruptures 
symptoms of uremia will develop in a few hours. (See 
Uremia.) 

In the dog the distention of the bladder will produce a 
noticeable increase in size of the abdominal cavity. Careful 
palpation will reveal the distended movable bladder. When 
rupture occurs the fluid will be detected free in the abdominal 
ca\dty. In such case puncturing the abdominal w^all with an 
exploring trocar will reveal the presence of urine. Care 
should be observed, however, to determine whether the 
fluid is in the cavity or still in the bladder, as the distended 
bladder can extend well forward in the abdominal cavity. 

Diagnosis.— The symptoms should be noted carefully. If 
the patient shows colic, frequent micturition, with small quan- 
tities of urine passed, a careful and thorough examination 
of the urinary organs should be made. As retention of urine 
in most cases is secondary to some disease of the urinary 
organs, a careful examination should be made to determine 
the primary condition. The examination may include 
puncturing the abdominal walls, laparotomy, rectal or vaginal 
exploration. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis depends principally upon the 
possibility of relieving the primary condition, and whether 
or not the bladder is still intact. In case of rupture it is 
unfavorable, especially when symptoms of uremia are present. 

Treatment.— The treatment must be directed toward 
removing the causes. In cases of paralysis of the walls of 
the bladder, it is advisable to remove the urine as early as 
possible. This can be done in most cases by catheterization. 
Small doses of strychnin (0.001, dog)" are recommended to 
give tone to the walls of the bladder. 

In spasms of the sphincter vesicae, catheterization may be 
tried; if unsuccessful, puncture the bladder and remove a 
portion of the urine. A small dose of morphin will overcome 
the spasmodic contraction, allowing the urine to flow out. 

In case an obstruction to the outflow of urine exists, treat- 
ment must be applied to remove it. 

House-broken dogs should be allowed to run out of doors 
at regular intervals to avoid extreme distention. 



416 DISEASES OF THE BLADDER 

INCONTINENCE OF URINE. 

Definition.— A constant discharge of the urine from the 
bladder; inabihty to retain urine. 

Etiology.— Incontinence may result from several different 
causes : 

(a) Affections of the spinal cord, as degeneration, edema, 
compression from hemorrhage, etc. 

(6) Paralysis of the sphincter vesicae. 

(c) Long standing cases of retention. 

(d) Lack of tone of the muscles due to senility. 

(e) Some cases of cystitis. 

(/) Injury to the sphincter muscles from surgical opera- 
tions, tumors, calculi, etc. 

Symptoms.— Constant dribbling of urine. Examination 
reveals the bladder empty, and the sphincter vesicae relaxed. 

Prognosis.— Depends upon the primary cause. Usually 
not considered very favorable as recovery is rarely complete. 

Treatment.— Symptomatic. Determine the cause and apply 
treatment to relieve it. 

CATARRH OF THE BLADDER. 

Cystitis. Urocystitis. 

Definition.— A catarrhal inflammation of the bladder which 
may be either acute or chronic. 

Etiology.— The principal causes are: 1. Bacteria (infec- 
tion), or irritants in the form of toxins, drugs, chemicals, 
etc. Bacteria gain entrance to the bladder in various ways: 

(a) Through the genito-urinary tract. Catheterization 
of animals is a common source of infection, the organisms 
being introduced directly by an infected catheter. In the 
female germs are easily introduced into the bladder through 
the urethra, which is short, and its opening near the vulva. 
A spread of inflammation from other infected parts of the 
urinary tract, e. g., pyelitis, nephritis, urethritis may also 
induce cystitis. Retention of urine from any cause leads to 
decomposition of the urine, and lowering of the normal 



CATARRH OF THE BLADDER 417 

resistance of the mucous membrane of the bladder, allowing 
infection to take place. 

(6) Infection may gain entrance to the bladder from the 
blood. In some of the infectious diseases, as distemper in 
the dog and cat, the bacteria are carried to the mucosa of 
the bladder by the blood stream. In digestive disturbances 
(constipation, etc.) the organisms which accumulate in the 
bowels enter the blood stream and are eliminated through 
the urinary passages, often leading to an acute cystitis. 
The colon bacteria and others more or less closely related 
are the chief offenders. 

(c) The infection may spread from the peritoneum, either 
from acute or chronic peritonitis, producing in some cases 
simply a pericystitis, and in others an involvement of the 
entire bladder wall. 

2. Irritating agents in the form of chemicals, or drugs, 
when eliminated in large quantities, frequently will produce 
cystitis. Cantharides, turpentine, balsams, and coal tar 
compounds given internally will produce it; external applica- 
tions of easily diffusible substances will, by absorption have 
the same effect, especially when applied over extensive areas. 

3. Sudden change in temperature, cold (chills) , disturbs the 
general circulation, and may lead to congestion of the bladder. 
Extreme cold affecting the body temperature might induce 
extensive inflammation of the organ. 

4. Calculi and other foreign material often produce chronic 
cystitis by the constant irritation they keep up. 

Pathology.— In the early stages of acute cystitis, the mucous 
membrane will be found reddened, congested, much swollen, 
and here and there small hemorrlmges will be noted. There 
is usually considerable thick^ viscid mucus covering the 
membrane, or there may be an admixture of pus. The 
purulent exudate often covers the entire membrane. In the 
later stages of the disease the mucosa is covered by a croupous 
or diphtheritic, yellowish membrane. Abscesses of various 
size may exist between the mucosa and the muscular walls. 
Erosions and ulcerations on the membrane are often the 
result of irritating materials. 

In the chronic form the pathological changes are principally 
27 



418 DISEASES OF THE BLADDER 

a thickening of the mucosa, which is corrugated, often 
presenting projecting growths. The muscular walls become 
contracted, thickened and incapable of distention. The 
apices of the corrugations are darkened, eroded and ulcerated. 
The bladder is usually empty and contracted. Inflammation 
of other portions of the urinary tract will be more or less 
apparent. 

Symptoms.— In acute cystitis, the animal will show marked 
symptoms of difficult micturition, severe straining as if to 
urinate, with only small quantities of urine passed. Some- 
times small quantities of blood follow the attempts to urinate. 
The animal stands with the back arched, shows pain when 
forced to move, and stiffness in walking. When moved the 
patient will cry out; it often assumes the attitude of urinating. 
An erection of the penis is a frequent symptom. Pressure 
over the region of the bladder induces pain. A dog being 
examined in the standing position will often cry out with 
pain, and try to bite and get away. Digital pressure either 
through the rectum or vagina produces the same symptoms. 
In most cases the bladder is found empty. Unless the 
condition is mild, general symptoms are usually observed. 
The temperature is elevated in the early stages, depending 
upon the cause and kind of infection. Later it may be 
normal or subnormal. Suppression of appetite, thirst, and 
general depression are often observed. Uremic symptoms 
will be found in some cases due to reabsorption of urine, or 
lack of elimination in cases where the other urinary organs 
are involved. The urine, passed in small quantities, will be 
dark in color, contains varying amounts of albumin, some- 
times pus, and stringy mucus. Shreds of fibrin and necrotic 
membrane are passed in the croupous and diphtheritic forms 
of cystitis. The urine is usually alkaline in reaction but 
may be acid. It will contain fibrin, pus cells (both the large 
cells and the long slender variety), crystals of ammonium 
urate, and numerous bacteria. The urine content assists 
in confirming the diagnosis. Chronic cystitis produces much 
the same symptoms but less severe than in the acute form. 
The most noticeable indications of chronic cystitis are painful 
micturition, the urine passed containing pus, red corpuscles. 



CATARRH OF THE BLADDER 419 

etc. The catheter should be inserted to differentiate from 
calculi. 

Diagnosis.— In acute cystitis a diagnosis can be made by 
observing the symptoms, making a careful local examination, 
and by analysis of the urine. Diseases of other portions of 
the urinary tract should be considered. In chronic cystitis 
the diagnosis is made by the examination of the urine, and 
the local examination of the patient. Calculi in the bladder 
and urethra should be excluded. 

Prognosis.— In mild cases of acute cystitis the prognosis 
is usually favorable. In severe cases, owing to the changes 
which are produced in the walls of the bladder, the prognosis 
is unfavorable. Chronic cystitis may run a long course 
without producing any marked s^Tuptoms. Complete re- 
covery is rare. By careful treatment considerable improve- 
ment can be attained. 

Treatment.— D^'e^g^zc-Non-stimulating food should be 
given. Milk is perhaps the best as it contains a large per- 
centage of water, which is desirable. Avoid giving meats 
until the acute symptoms entirely disappear. 

Medical. — Much can be done in acute cystitis by the 
internal administration of antiseptics and disinfectants. 
Urotropin (0.25-0.5) two or three times daily for dogs; cats 
should receive about one-fourth the quantity. This prep- 
aration produces a disinfectant action owing to the libera- 
tion of formal dehyd gas. 

Helmitol (dog, 1.0-2.0; cat, 0.1-0.5) can also be used for the 
same purpose, administered either in the form of a powder, 
or may be given as a subcutaneous injection in 10 per cent, 
solution. 

Salol, salicylic acid, and resorcin may be given for a 
similar action. In chronic catarrh much the same treatment 
is recommended as in the acute form of the disease. 

Balsam copaiba, and turpentine in small doses are recom- 
mended. 

Irrigation of the Bladder.— Irngsition of the bladder, which 
is easy in the dog, in order to remove infections and irritating 
matter, is of great importance in cystitis. In the male animal 
a catheter is passed into the bladder, and the urine is allowed 



420 DISEASES OF THE BLADDER 

to flow out. A rubber tube about 2 or 3 feet in length, 
pro\4ded with a funnel, is attached to the catheter. The 
tube is elevated and a warm, normal salt solution (40.0-70.0) 
allowed to flow into the bladder. The tube is then depressed 
to siphon out the fluid. Follo^sing the injection, it is 
advisable to use some of the mild disinfectants as boric acid 
(2 per cent.), or ichthyol solution (1-2 per cent.). These 
should be allowed to remain in the bladder five to ten min- 
utes and then removed. The injection should be repeated in 
eight to twelve hours. In females the injections are made 
much in the same way. Sometimes in the male, when 
injections are to be made often, the urethra becomes irritated 
from the frequent passing of the catheter. In such cases a 
temporary urethrotomy may be performed at the ischial 
arch, and the injections made from this point. Thorough 
application of these solutions will often produce most 
excellent results. 



TORSION OF THE BLADDER. 

This condition has been found to occur occasionally in the 
dog. It leads to retention of urine and eventually to rupture 
of the bladder. Death occurs from peritonitis and uremia. 
Surgical relief should be attempted. 



CALCULI IN THE BLADDER. 

Calculi are more common in the dog than in any other small 
animal. They appear in various sizes and forms. In some 
cases they are very small and multiple; in others a single, 
rounded concretion, conforming to the shape of the bladder, 
is found. 

Etiology.— The factors producing concretions in the bladder 
may be classed under three headings : 

(a) Local disturbance in the urinary organs. In this case 
there will be found degenerative changes from the products 
of the urine (uric acid), leading to necrosis of the cells, such 
products forming the nucleus around which the salts deposit. 



CALCULI IN THE BLADDER 421 

(b) Disturbances of metabolism in which there will be a 
larger quantity of material eliminated in the form of phos- 
phates, carbonates, oxalates (calcium and ammonium 
oxalate), uric acid, urates (ammonium urate), etc. The 
excess of these salts becomes deposited around the organic 
nucleus, leading to bladder calculus. 

(e) The administration of foods rich in salts of various 
kinds will increase the quantity in the body, and consequently 
more salts will be eliminated. 

Forms and Varieties. — 1. Acid Urine Calculi, (a) Uric 
Acid Calculi {Ammonium Urate).— These are small, hard, 
smooth calculi, of a reddish or yellowish-brown color. They 
are perhaps the most common kind found in the dog. 

(6) Oxalate Calculi (Calcium and Avimonium Oxalate).— 
In form these calculi are rough on the surface, irregular in 
shape, and usually when removed are of a dirty white or 
yellowish color. 

(c) Cystin Calculi. Soft waxy bodies, which no doubt 
result from disturbed metabolism of nitrogenous substances. 
Their color is brown or brownish-yellow. They are soft 
enough in most cases to be crushed between the fingers. 

2. Alkaline Urine Calculi.— There will be found various 
forms of these concretions, such as phosphates and carbonates 
predominating, and in combination with other salts, etc. 
These calculi occur either multiple, as particles of sand or 
grit, or in single, large concretions. They are hard, irregular, 
rough or smooth stones, of a white, yellowish or dirty color, 
which are usually flattened, oval or oblong. 

The recognition of the different varieties of calculi is 
important from the standpoint of recurrence and treatment 
following their removal. 

Symptoms.— The acid concretions do not, as a rule, produce 
any marked symptoms, except as they impede the flow of 
urine. 

The large, alkaline stones are most productive of clinical 
symptoms, and the ones which require the most radical 
treatment. Thefe will be symptoms of a catarrhal inflam- 
mation of the bladder, and })us is discharged with the urine. 
Micturition is j)ainful, and only small quantities of urine are 



422 DISEASES OF THE BLADDER 

passed. Attention is usually called to the case by the con- 
stant dribbling of urine. 

Examination of the bladder is necessary' to determine the 
presence of the calculus. This may be made either by digital 
examination through the recrom. by abdominal palpation, 
or by laparotomy. See Examination of Bladder. 

Prognosis.— Cases when taken early before systemic dis- 
turbances make their appearance from absorption of tu'ine, 
etc., are favorable. However, the local disturbances in the 
bladder produced by the calcuH should be taken into con- 
sideration, for sometimes serious alterations difficult to heal 
will be foimd in the mucosa. 

Treatment.— Surgical treatment is the only satisfactory 
method of removing calculi from the bladder. In the male 
animal the following procedure has been f otmd to be the most 
efficient. 

The animal is prepared for operation by being given an 
anesthetic, placed on the table in the dorsal position, and 
the field of operation just anterior to the pubis and lateral 
to the penis shaved and disinfected. The incision should 
be 2 to 3 inches in length, so that the bladder can be exposed. 
After exposing the bladder it should be well protected with 
gauze to prevent urine from flowing into the canity when 
incised. The incision is made through the walls of the 
bladder where bloodvessels show the fewest anastomoses. 
It should be of sufficient size to remove the calculus. After 
the removal of the calculus the mucosa of the bladder should 
be examined for smaller stones or deposits, and if any are 
foimd they should also be removed with a blunt curette. 
The mucosa is then swabbed with gatize saturated in an anti- 
septic solution. The wound in the bladder is sutured with 
a double row of sunues bringing the serous coats in direct 
approximation. The sutures should be placed close together 
to prevent the urine escaping imtil arihesion takes place. 
The laparotomy woimd is closed and protected in the usual 
manner. In the female two methods are employed: 

ya^ The animal, weU hoppled, is placed in the ventral 
position on the table. A vaginal speculum is used to dilate 
the vagina. A grooved director is inserted into the urethra 



PARASITES IN THE BLADDER 423 

and with a probe-pointed knife the urethra is incised back to 
the neck of the bladder. The stone, if not too large, is grasp- 
ed with a suitable forceps and removed. After removal the 
bladder should be flushed out with a warm boric acid solution 
(2 per cent.). The vagina should be flushed out daily for a 
few days. 

(b) In case the stone is too large to be removed through 
the neck of the bladder without injuring the sphincter vesicae, 
the operation for cystotomy should be performed as in the 
male. 

The after-treatment consists in irrigation of the bladder 
(see Cystitis), and feeding plenty of milk and no meat for a 
week or ten days. In some cases when hemorrhage takes 
place following the operation, the catheter should be passed 
daily to remove the urine and any clots which might form. 



TUMORS OF THE BLADDER. 

There are a few varieties of tumors found involving this 
organ. The most common ones are: Sarcomata, carci- 
nomata, and fibromata. They will be recognized by the 
symptoms of chronic cystitis they produce, by the examina- 
tion of the urine and of the bladder. If necessary laparotomy 
may be performed and the bladder examined direct. (See 
Examination of the Bladder.) 

Prognosis.— This is not very favorable, especially if the 
tumor is malignant. 

Treatment.— Resection of a portion of the bladder wall 
is to be recommended when the tumor formation is localized, 
otherwise no treatment can be given. Irrigate the bladder 
in the same manner as in cystitis. (See Cystitis.) 



PARASITES IN THE BLADDER. 

The Dioctophyme renale parasite is found occasionally in 
the bladder. A few cases have been recorded in which 
species of parasites found in the blood became located in 



424 DISEASES OF THE BLADDER 

the wall of the bladder. Symptoms of catarrhal inflam- 
mation of the bladder, with the presence of eggs in the 
urine, will assist in making the diagnosis. Should eggs be 
found in the urine, it then becomes necessary to definitely 
locate the parasite. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in removal of the para- 
sites by cystotomy, and the subsequent irrigation of the 
bladder with antiseptics. 



CHAPTER III. 

DISEASES OF THE URETHRA. 

Examination.— The urethra may be examined in two 
ways : 

(a) In the male it is possible to palpate from without 
along its course until it passes over the ischial arch; the part 
within the pelvis may be palpated through the rectum. 
Palpation will reveal sensitiveness in cases of urethritis and 
calculi lodged at some point along its course. There are 
three parts of the urethra in which calculi are most apt 
to lodge: At the neck of the bladder; where the prostate 
glands practically surround it, and at the posterior end of 
the bone of the penis. At these points, owing to the struc- 
ture of the urethra and adjacent parts, any foreign material 
passed from the bladder is inost apt to become lodged. In 
the female the urethra can be palpated through the vagina. 
In the female, the urethra, as a rule, is free from foreign 
material, because any substance of this kind small enough 
to pass from the bladder into the urethra, will be forced out 
with the urine. 

(b) The passage of the catheter or sound is a valuable 
means of determining the sensitiveness of the mucous mem- 
brane, the presence of calculi or other foreign material, or 
strictures at different points along the course of the urethra. 
Care should be taken in inserting the catheter not to injure 
the urethral mucosa; also one should not mistake the normal 
narrowing of the lumen of the urethra for strictures, etc. 

CONGENITAL MALFORMATIONS. 

Occlusion of the Urethra. 

Occlusion of the urethra is occasionally found in both the 
male and female. Sometimes an ()])ening exists in some other 
portion of the urethra through which the urine is (hschargcd. 



426 DISEASES OF THE URETHRA 

Various kinds of abnormalities have been observed, such as 
epispadia and hypospadia. 

Symptoms.— Occlusion of the urethra at its outlet is 
characterized in young animals by a retention of urine, 
enlargement of the abdomen, and no signs of micturition. 
The distended bladder will be found on examination. 

Treatment.— Surgical treatment should be given at once. 
If the occlusion is at the extreme end of the urethra it should 
be incised at this point and the flaps stitched back to the 
skin to prevent adhesions taking place. The urine will 
usually keep the wound open. Should the occlusion be at 
a point higher up, in a male dog, an artificial opening should 
be made at the ischial arch through which the urine is 
allowed to pass. It may be necessary for this opening to 
be used permanently, in which case the edges of the mem- 
brane on either side should be stitched back to the skin, and 
kept clean for several days until union takes place. In 
the female the urethra should be opened with a pair of 
scissors, and kept dilated with a metallic catheter used 
daily. 

WOUNDS OF THE URETHRA. 

It happens occasionally when animals are injured that 
the urethra will be opened at some point along its exposed 
portion. It mil be made manifest by the presence of a 
wound through which urine escapes. Internal wounds of 
the mucosa occur from the careless use of a catheter or 
sound, or b}' foreign bodies passing from the bladder, or 
by weeds or straws entering the urethral outlet. 

Treatment.— In extensive and severe lacerations of the 
urethra they should be sutured, and the wound well pro- 
tected. In a short time union will take place and the 
urine passed normally. Injuries to the mucosa are treated 
by injecting mild antiseptic solutions (boric acid 2 per cent). 

STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA. 

Definition.— A constriction of the wall of the urethra 
which narrows the lumen and interferes with the passage 
of urine. 



CALCULI IN THE URETHRA 427 

Etiology.— This is brought about by a number of condi- 
tions which lead to injury of the mucous membrane, and in 
the healing process to the formation of cicatricial tissue 
with narrowing of the lumen, and loss of elasticity in the 
urethral wall. The most common causes of stricture are: 
Calculi, tumors, urethritis and torsion of the urethra occur- 
ring during copulation. 

Symptoms. — Impeded or complete suppression of micturi- 
tion, with straining and pain. Bladder distended. In some 
cases small quantities of urine will be passed after much 
straining. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is made by noting the symp- 
toms, and the passage of a sound or catheter. Stricture 
of the urethra should not be confused with calculi and* 
prostatic enlargement. 

Prognosis.— Not very favorable, as complete recovery is 
rare. 

Treatment.— The passage of a sound or catheter daily for 
a time will tend to dilate the urethra. The catheter or 
sound should be well disinfected each time to avoid infec- 
tion in the urethra or bladder. No other treatment has 
proved of any value. 

CALCULI IN THE URETHRA. 

Frequently in the male dog calculi are found at some 
point along the course of the urethra. These stones are 
passed from the bladder and are of sufficient size to become 
lodged in the urethra at the prostate gland and at the os 
penis. While they usually consist of one or more concre- 
tions, 'in some cases an impacted mass of small stones with 
blood or fibrin clot forms the stoppage. Occasionally there 
will be found injury to the mucous membrane, the stones 
passing out in part into the adjacent tissues. 

Sylnptoms.— When the calculi become lodged in the urethra 
marked symptoms develop in a short time. If there is 
complete stoppage of urine, the animal will soon show dis- 
tress, frequent attempts at micturition, straddling, stiff 
gait, evidences of urinary pain or colic. Examination of 



428 DISEASES OF THE URETHRA 

•the bladder will reveal its distended condition. Should the 
condition continue for several hours the urine will be dammed 
back to produce distention of all the urinary passages. Pas- 
sage of the sound or catheter will reveal the obstruction in 
the urethra. In the female, by inserting the fingers in the 
vagina, the enlargement can be felt. 

Prognosis. — Favorable in case treatment can be given 
promptl}'. The complications, paralysis or rupture of the 
bladder, should be taken into consideration, as they are 
apt to occur if treatment is delayed too long. 

Treatment.— Surgical treatment is resorted to promptly 
to prevent rupture of the bladder. In case rupture threat- 
ens, use a long, disinfected, exploring trocar, disinfect the 
skin in the prepubic region, place the animal in a dorsal 
position and insert the trocar through the abdominal wall 
into the bladder. x\llow the urine to flow out, remove the 
trocar and cover the wound with flexible collodion. There 
is usually but little danger of injuring the bowels, as the 
distended bladder pushes them to one side. Urethrotomy 
should then be performed. In the male an anesthetic 
(morphin or chloroform) should be administered, and the 
patient placed on the table in a dorsal position with the 
hind legs brought forward. The sound or catheter is 
inserted as a guide to locate the calculus, and also to assist 
in making the incision. The seat of operation will depend 
upon the location of the calculus. When located just 
posterior to the os penis, the incision is made at the distal 
portion of the enlargement. Should the calculus be at the 
prostatic portion of the urethra the operation should be 
performed at the ischial arch. The seat of operation should 
be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. The incision is 
made immediately over the sound which can be distinctly 
felt. This should be made of sufficient size to allow the 
calculus to be removed without injuring the adjacent tissues. 
In some cases, when the tissues are lacerated, they become 
infiltrated with urine and cause considerable trouble fol- 
lowing the operation. After the removal of the calculus, 
if any urine is present, it will flow out; should this fail to 
occur examine further for other calculi by passing the sound 



INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA 429 

beyond the point of operation. When the calculus is in 
the prostatic portion of the urethra, the sound should be 
passed as before and the incision made at the ischial arch, 
cutting down to the catheter or sound. The urethra then 
is dilated by either passing a larger sound, or by inserting 
a grooved director and enlarging it with a probe-pointed 
knife. The calculus is then extracted by using a strong 
dressing forceps. In some cases it may be crushed with 
lithotomy forceps and taken out in pieces. 

In the female the operation is much more simple. In 
some cases the calculus can be removed by manipulating it 
with the finger inserted in the vagina. Should this fail the 
urethra must be dilated or enlarged sufficiently to admit 
forceps for its extraction. It is best to use a grooved director 
and with a probe-pointed knife the urethra is divided up 
to the stone, where it can be extracted with forceps. 

After-treatment consists in flushing out the bladder with 
some mild antiseptic solution, such as sodium bicarbonate 
(2 per cent.) or boric acid (2 per cent.). The wound should 
be left open and kept clean with antiseptics. The urine 
will at first pass out through the incision, but as the wound 
fills in by granulation, eventually it will be voided normally. 
In the female the vagina should be cleansed daily with 
antiseptics. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA. 

Urethritis. 

V rethritis is not a common primary condition in small 
animals, but it sometimes accompanies other diseases of 
the urinary organs. A primary urethritis results from 
infection due to the introduction of a sound or catheter or 
from injuries during copulation, etc. 

Symptoms. — Painful micturition. Pus and blood can be 
pressed out of the urethra. 

Treatment. — Antiseptic solutions, such as boric acid (2 
per cent.) or sulphate of zinc (I per cent.) are to be used 
as injections into the urethra and prepuce. 



PART IX. 
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



CHAPTER I. 
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 

General Considerations.— Diseases of the central nervous 
system are usually, for the purpose of convenience and 
pedagogy, classified into those affecting the encephalon or 
brain, those affecting the spinal cord, and those affecting 
the peripheral nerves. 

This seems to be a logical classification, and this method 
will be followed in presenting the diseases of the nervous 
system. In order to correctly diagnose diseases of this 
system, a knowledge of its functions as well as the seat of 
each function is required. These will, therefore, be con- 
sidered briefly. 

Preliminary remarks on the functions and seat of each: 

Cortex.— The cortex of the cerebral hemispheres is the 
seat of all psychic function, such as thought, the will and 
sensation, and all efferent nerve fibers originate here. The 
voluntary motor fibers also originate in the cortex, pass 
through the pons to the medulla oblongata where they 
cross to the opposite side and communicate with the motor 
nerves of the extremities. All sensory nerve fibers and 
fibers of special sense which conduct perceptible impulses 
to the brain terminate in the cortex. The cortex of the 
cerebrum, then, being the seat of the mind and of voluntary 
movement, it follows that any destructive process affecting 
this portion of the brain will produce psychic or mental 



432 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

disturbances as well as impaired mobility and sensation on 
the opposite side of the body, the degree of impairment 
depending upon the extent of the lesion. 

The Midhrain (Crura Cerebri, Corpora Quadrigemini and 
Optic Thalaini).-— This portion of the brain is the seat of 
harmony of motion and equilibrium. As some of the cranial 
nerves arise here, the fifth pair being the most important 
of. these, any disease, destructive process or undue pressure 
operating on this part of the brain Avill produce sensory 
and motor disturbances in the region of the face, lips, eyes, 
ears and part of the tongue, and, if extensive, the entire 
organism may be affected. Involuntar}^ movements of the 
limbs, head, neck and eyes are the most common symptoms 
resulting. 

The Cerebellum.— The functions of the cerebellum or hind- 
brain are not fully known but it is regarded as being closely 
connected with locomotion and equilibrium. It is also 
thought to be the seat of the muscle sense and assists in the 
coordination of the muscle movements. Each hemisphere 
of the cerebellum presides over the muscles of the same side 
of the body and if either half be injured or diseased the 
animal will exhibit muscular and motor disturbances of 
the same side, varying in degree from slight muscular 
incoordination to spasmodic movements, or it may walk 
in a circle or crowd or roll toward the injured hemisphere. 

Examination.— The brain, because of its position, pro- 
tected by the bones of the cranium, cannot be examined 
directly. Diseases of this organ can be recognized only 
by observing the disturbed functions produced after patho- 
logical changes have occurred. It is necessary, therefore, 
to examine carefully the functions of the brain before one 
can arrive at definite conclusions. 

x\s the brain is the seat of the mind (thought), feeling, 
consciousness, sensibility and voluntary movement, any dis- 
turbances or impairment of these functions must be 
attributed to some pathological change in that organ. 

Taking up the examination of the brain by examining its 
functions in the order named above, the psychic function or 
mental condition will be first considered. 



EXAMINATION 433 

1. Psychic Distukbances. — Any variation from the nor- 
mal mental condition is manifested by abnormal excitability, 
or abnormal depression. 

(a) Mental Excitement.— AhnoTinsil mental excitement is 
caused by cerebral irritation involving particularly the 
cortex. This may be due to hyperemia, inflammatory 
changes, excessive heat or toxic influence. The degree of 
excitement may vary from restlessness to mania. In these 
attacks docile animals may become vicious, bite animate 
or inanimate objects, or even their own flesh; may stand 
up on their hind legs, froth at the mouth, and the eyes show 
a vacant, staring expression, conjunctiva injected. These 
symptoms may gradually subside or they may terminate 
in spasms and convulsions. 

(b) Mental Depression.— This may be defined as a dulling 
of the psychic functions and may vary in degree from dul- 
ness to coma. Mental depression is shown by the animal 
taking less interest in its surroundings than usual, drooping 
of the head and tail, refusing to obey commands or obeys 
slowly or clumsily; it assumes somnolent or lethargic atti- 
tudes or may wander aimlessly about running into objects, 
etc. These are the milder manifestations of depression and 
are seen in subacute and chronic diseases affecting the brain 
chiefly the cortex. They may occur in acute infectious 
diseases, as the early stages of distemper, rabies, in severe 
febrile diseases, and in icterus and uremia. Other degrees 
of mental depression are shown by somnolency, a condition 
in which the animal appears to be asleep, but from which 
it may be roused; or sopor, deep sleep from which it is 
difficult to rouse the animal, and coma, or complete uncon- 
sciousness. These conditions are produced by more severe 
or extensive lesions. They are seen in compression of the 
brain, cerebral hemorrhage and tumors of the brain. They 
may be accompanied by motor disturbances in addition to 
the mental symptoms, since these conditions may involve 
the deeper structures of the brain as well as the cortex. 

2. Sensibility.— Disturbances of sensation may be con- 
sidered as of two types, viz.: (a) Pathological excitation or 
hyperesthesia and {b) pathological depression or anesthesia. 

28 



434 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

Hyperesthesia when observed in small animals is usually 
due to some of the infectious diseases, and is seen in the 
early stages of rabies, in tetanus, and in some of the milder 
diseases of the cerebrum as h^^eremia and acute cerebritis. 
Hyperesthesia is manifested by abnormal movements of the 
animal which are entirely out of proportion to the stimulus 
applied. For example, slamming the door or clapping the 
hands may so excite the animal that it will fall to the floor 
or ground in spasms. Local or peripheral hyperesthesia is of 
little or no importance in small animal practice. 

Anesthesia.— This is a condition in which there is a com- 
plete loss of sensation. H^peresthesia indicates a condition 
in which tactile sensibility is merely decreased. Dimin- 
ished sensibiUty may be general or complete, affecting the 
entire animal, as in subacute or chronic inflammatory 
conditions of the cortex of the brain and its coverings. It 
may be partial or incomplete, affecting one entire side, 
having its origin in one hemisphere, that of the opposite side. 
Or it may be local, circumscribed, when more or less exten- 
sive areas of the cerebrum are involved. Depression of 
sensibility is determined by applying some stimulus, which 
when applied to the normal animal will cause pain. To 
test sensibility the skin is pricked with a needle or pin, 
pinched or burned with a heated instrument. If the animal 
fails to react, that is, does not show pain by crying out, 
whining, or trying to get away from the irritant, the area 
or part tested is anesthetic. 

J/o/z7z/^.— Disturbances of motihty arising from the 
brain vary in degree from slight incoordination to complete 
paralysis. They will vary in extent and character, depend- 
ing upon the location and size of the lesion. Disturbed 
motility may be classified into (a) h^^erkinesis or exag- 
gerated action as seen in spasms and involuntary movements, 
and (6) akinesis or decreased action such as occurs in loss 
of the muscular sense and in paralysis. Disordered motility 
may arise from pathological changes in the brain or in the 
spinal cord. In examining disturbances of motility, it is 
sometimes impossible to locate definitely the seat of the 
lesion. However, if the impaired function is accompanied 



HYPEREMIA OF THE BRAIN 435 

by mental disturbances, the brain may be regarded as 
being the seat of the lesion. If, on the other hand, no 
mental disturbances are noted, it is assumed that the lesion 
is in the cord. Further, the portion of the animal affected 
will often point to the origin of the disturbance. Hemi- 
plegia, or paralysis of one-half of the body, and monoplegia, 
paralysis of a single organ or part, indicate that the disturb- 
ance is of cerebral origin, while paraplegia, a paralysis of a 
portion of both sides, indicates spinal paralysis. 

HYPEREMIA OF THE BRAIN. 

Congestion of the Brain. 

Definition.— Hyperemia is a condition in which there is 
an engorgement of the vessels of the brain. The engorge- 
ment may be active or passive. 

Etiology.— Active hyperemia, or congestion of the brain, 
may be caused by anything which affects the cerebral 
arterial circulation. Violent exercise, excitement, espe- 
cially in young animals, blows and concussion on the head, 
are causes. It may accompany eruption of the permanent 
teeth, or abnormal heart action as in hypertrophy of the left 
ventricle. Excessive heat, as direct sunlight upon the head 
in hot weather, will also produce active hyperemia. 

Infective hyperemia of the brain appears secondarily to 
some of the infectious diseases, the most common being 
rabies and distemper. 

Passive Hyperemia. — The causes of passive hyperemia of 
the brain are chiefly mechanical, and may be anything 
which impedes the outflow of the blood from the brain. 
Tight collars will compress the jugular veins and produce 
it. Tumors and enlarged thyroid glands (goiter), valvular 
insufficiency of the left heart, chronic diseases of the lungs 
as interstitial pneumonia, may produce a passive hyperemia. 

Pathology.— In severe hyperemia of the brain, the dura 
mater or outer covering will be found injected and in cases 
of long standing may be adherent to the bones of the cranial 
cavity. The pia mater or inner membrane is hyperemic 
and the bloodvessels engorged. The gray matter varies 



436 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

from a gray to a pinkish color, and the white matter a 
yellowish-red. Between the brain and its covering mem- 
brane, and between the membranes themselves there is an 
abnormal amount of fluid; the brain substance itself is 
abnormally infiltrated with serum. In very severe hyper- 
emia there may be ecchymoses or petechise present either in 
the substance of the brain or its membranes. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of active hyperemia of the 
brain vary, depending upon the severity of the engorge- 
ment and the degree of intracranial tension. In mild cases 
there may be only symptoms of restlessness shown, the 
animal frequently changing its position or wandering about 
in an aimless manner. Excitement and irritability may 
be seen with a tendency to bite, although the animal is not 
aggressive. In more severe hyperemia, there may be 
spasms and convulsions. The conjunctiva is congested, 
the pupil contracted and the expression vacant or staring. 
On palpation the head feels warmer than normal. The 
pulse and respirations are accelerated, appetite lost or vari- 
able and the animal may vomit. These symptoms appear 
quite suddenly but do not persist for long periods. They 
may disappear in a few hours or may last as long as three 
or four days. 

The symptoms of passive hyperemia are chiefly those of 
depression, although these may alternate with periods of 
excitement. 

Diagnosis. — Except for its shorter course and less severe 
s^Tiiptoms, hyperemia of the brain cannot be differentiated 
from encephalitis, the symptoms being identical. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis should be guarded, as even 
apparently mild cases terminate fatally through inflamma- 
tion of the brain, a common sequel. 

Treatment.— DieMic— As the animal will not usually 
take food during the acute stage and forcible feeding aggra- 
vates the symptoms, only fresh milk and plenty of fresh 
water should be offered at frequent intervals. Keep the 
patient in a cool, quiet, dark place, away from noise and 
exciting influences. 



ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN 437 

Medical— In the early stages mild revulsives may be 
administered, the object being to divert the blood from the 
head to the intestinal tract. Magnesium sulphate (8.0-10.0) 
may be given for this purpose or pilocarpin (0.00324-0.0081), 
the latter subcutaneously. If the excitement is intense and 
there are convulsions, morphin sulphate (0.0324-0.1944) may 
be administered subcutaneously. If the animal is depressed, 
narcotics should not be given, but cerebral stimulants admin- 
istered: CafTein citrate (0.0324-0.1944) dissolved in normal 
salt solution or distilled water; camphor in the form of the 
spirit (0.5-1.0) given subcutaneously, or, diluted via the 
mouth. Atropin sulphate (0.0005-0.001) is also useful as a 
cerebral and heart stimulant, subcutaneously. If the hyper- 
emia is due to pressure from enlarged glands or tumors, these 
must be removed according to the rules of surgery. 

Surgical.— If the animal is strong and plethoric, vene- 
section may be performed on the saphena veins withdrawing 
from 3 to 6 oz. of blood. Cold applications to the head in 
the form of cold packs or ice-bags are useful but only in the 
earliest stages, and should not be employed if the animal is 
depressed. After convalescence is established, feed lightly 
giving laxative foods, as mush and liver or oatmeal and 
milk. 



ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN. CEREBRAL ANEMIA. 

Definition.— Anemia of the brain is a condition in which 
there is a marked decrease from the normal in the amount 
of blood in the brain and its membranes. It may be acute 
or chronic. 

Etiology.— Acute anemia of the brain may follow severe 
hemorrhage, or the too rapid withdrawal of fluid from the 
abdominal or thoracic cavities as in paracentesis. It may 
occur in thrombosis of the carotid arteries or in cardiac 
diseases, as stenosis or valvular insufficiency. 

Chronic anemia of the brain is seen in chronic constitu- 
tional diseases, and in diseases afl'ecting the blood, as general 
anemia and leukemia. Helminthiasis is a common cause. 



438 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

Pathology.— The brain and its coverings are pale and the 
vessels quite bloodless. The cortex which is normally 
pinkish-gray in color is almost white and on section of the 
brain mass appears to be fused with the underlying white 
mass, the line of demarcation being indistinct. 

Symptoms.— In acute anemia of the brain, the symptoms 
appear quite suddenly and vary from a slight dizziness to 
complete insensibility. The pulse is small and weak, the 
respirations may be slow and labored or accelerated. The 
mucous membranes of the head are very pale. The pupil 
of the eye is dilated. There may be convulsions from which 
the animal gradually recovers or these may be followed by 
death. The symptoms of chronic anemia are milder and 
in cases which progress slowly, no symptoms of either 
motor or psychic disturbances occur. 

Prognosis.— Depends on the direct cause and the possi- 
bility of its removal. 

Treatment.— J/ef/ica/.— In acute anemia of the brain, the 
treatment is stimulative. Any of the cerebral stimulants, 
as caffein citrate (0.0324-0.1944) subcutaneously, alcohol 
(2.0-4.0) diluted, if the animal can swallow, or aromatic spirit 
of ammonia (2.0-4.0) well diluted. 

Surgical.— Arti^cisii respiration and massage should be 
practiced if the patient requires it. Clysters of normal salt 
solution are also beneficia], or the solution may be given 
intraperitoneally. 

Chronic anemia of the brain must be treated by removing 
the primary cause and treating the general anemia by the 
administration of tonics, particularly the hematinics (iron 
and arsenic preparations). Also prescribe a full, rich diet. 



MENINGO-ENCEPHAUTIS. 

Definition.— This is an inflammatory process affecting the 
brain and its covering membranes. It may be suppurative 
or non-suppurative. The writer's reason for combining 
meningitis and encephalitis is, that in practice these diseases 
cannot be differentiated during the life of the animal, and 



MENINGO-ENCEPHALITIS 439 

when one exists the other is present at least to some extent. 
Furthermore, the treatment is essentially the same. 

Etiology.— Meningo-encephalitis is caused by practically 
the same factors that produce h^^eremia of the brain. 
These are: Violent exercise, excitement, blows or concus- 
sions on the head. Excessive heat, direct sunlight, etc., are 
thermic causes. 

Infectious diseases, as rabies and distemper, are at times 
accompanied by meningo-encephalitis as are suppurative dis- 
eases of the auditory canal (otitis) frequently seen in the rab- 
bit and occasionally in the dog. Other causes are metastatic 
emboli from infected internal organs as the uterus, lungs, 
heart (endocarditis) and mammary glands (tumors). 

Pathology.— In meningo-encephalitis lesions of various 
size and character may be seen, depending upon the cause, 
and may be formed anj^where in the brain or on the mem- 
branes. There may be numerous inflammatory areas or 
perhaps only one. Usually hemorrhagic, circumscribed or 
diffuse areas are noted either on or within the hemisphere, 
or on the cerebral membranes. The color of the areas varies 
from a dark brown 'to a greenish-yellow, depending on the 
age of the lesion. In those cases caused by metastatic 
emboli, suppurative areas may be found in any part of 
the brain and are usually multiple. 

Symptoms.— As in hyperemia of the brain, there are symp- 
toms of psychic or motor disturbance, or both. Early there 
is restlessness and timidity, and the dog may howl or bark 
continuously. If unrestrained the animal will run or wander 
about in an aimless manner and frequently run against 
objects. The head is hot, visible mucous membranes con- 
gested, and the eyes have a vacant, staring expression. The 
pupils may show unilateral contraction or dilatation. While 
most text-books state that the pupils are contracted, the 
writer has observed that in most cases they are either dilated 
or unequal. 

In severe cases of meningo-encephalitis, spasms and 
convulsions, followed by unconsciousness, are obser\'ed. 
The animal may gradually recover consciousness, or may 
die in one of these attacks. When the inflammat()r\' areas 



440 DISEASES OF THE BRAIiX 

are caused by metastatic emboli, the temperatm'e is ele- 
vated about two degrees and there are symptoms of paralysis 
shown, the parts involved depending upon what portion of 
the brain is affected. Deafness and blindness are not 
uncommon, showing involvement of the cranial nerves. 

Diagnosis.— Meningo-encephalitis, except for its longer 
course, cannot be differentiated from acute hyperemia or 
congestion of the brain. Xone but the layman would con- 
fuse it with rabies (see Rabies). 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable as less than 20 
per cent, of cases fully recover. The others usually die 
within a few days or become chronic ''dummies." 

Treatment.— The treatment of meningo-encephalitis varies 
in no way from that of h^-peremia of the brain. 

CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. APOPLEXY. 

Definition.— This is a hemorrhage invohing usually the 
cortex of the cerebrum, though it may occur in any portion 
of the brain. 

Etiology.— Cerebral hemorrhage is most frequently seen 
in old dogs in which there is some degenerative process in 
the walls of the afferent bloodA'essels of the brain. It is 
also seen in distemper and in the arteriosclerosis which may 
follow rheumatism. These are predisposing causes. The 
direct causes are ami:hing which raises the blood pressure, 
as excitement, violent muscular exercises, etc. 

Pathology. — The hemorrhage occurs usually on the cere- 
brum from rupture of a capillary. If the hemorrhage is 
near the surface the membrane covering the brain at that 
point wWl be distended and the convolutions will be depressed 
or flattened. 

The site of the lesion may contain blood, hemoglobin or 
a serous fluid, depending upon the age of the lesion. 

Sjrmptoms.- These appear suddenly, usually after play or 
excitement and are those of paresis or paralysis. The animal 
drops to the floor or ground and is con^Tllsed with muscular 
spasms. These may pass off and the animal will rise and 
walk about in an unsteady manner, or may lose conscious- 



TUMORS OF THE BRAIN 441 

ness. The conjunctiA''a is reddened, and the heart beat 
rapid. The respirations are slow and regular or they may 
be stuporous and irregular, of the Cheyne-Stokes' variety. 
The temperature is about normal. 

If the animal does not die at once, it is usually left with 
a partial or complete paralysis, monoplegic or hemiplegic in 
character, depending upon the size and location of the 
hemorrhage. If the hemorrhage is small and away from 
the cortex, there will be only slight conA^ulsions shown 
followed by muscular incoordination, the animal stumbling 
or staggering from side to side and falling. 

Diagnosis.— The sudden occurrence, the history, the char- 
acter of the respiration and the paralysis make the diagnosis 
not difficult. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis should be unfavorable, only the 
milder cases terminating favorably. 

Treatment. — Place the animal in moderately cool, well- 
ventilated quarters away from exciting influences. Cold 
applications should be applied early to the head, and if there 
be convulsions, antispasmodics (morphin, 0.0162-0.1944) ma}' 
be administered. Give potassium iodid (0.1-0.8) to resorb 
the hemorrhagic exudate, and keep the bowels open with 
mild purgatives, such as castor oil (15.0-40.0). Later the 
paralysis ma}^ be treated by the administration of strychnin 
to almost the toxic point (0.00054-0.00216). The faradic 
battery is also useful in treating the paralysis. 

As this condition is brought about by a high blood pres- 
sure and is most commonly seen in plethoric animals, it is 
well to reduce the blood pressure by depletion methods, such 
as a restricted diet and occasional bleeding from the saphena 
vein, to prevent another attack. 



TUMORS OF THE BRAIN. 

Tumors of the brain are rare in small animals but are 
occasionally observed. They tnay involve any part of the 
brain and its covering membrane, and histologically may be 
of any type. 



442 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

The symptoms produced depend upon the location of the 
tumor and the degree of intracranial tension. They may 
be those of paralysis, muscular incoordination, rolling or 
turning movements, deafness or blindness. Unless the 
symptoms indicate that the tumor is located near the cortex 
or involves the membranes covering the brain, treatment, 
which is purely surgical, should not be attempted. 



CHAPTER II. 
DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD. 

General Considev&tions.— Functions of the Core/.— Briefly 
stated, the functions of the spinal cord are: (a) A con- 
ductor of nerve impulses from the intracranial nerve centers 
to the periphery (skin and muscles), and from the periphery 
to the center; (b) it is the great reflex center for muscular 
coordination, and also contains in the anterior part special 
reflex centers, which control respiration, the circulation and 
deglutition, and in the lumbar portion are the centers for 
defecation, micturition, etc. 

Examination.— The cord, like the brain, cannot be exam- 
ined directly on account of its sheltered position within 
the vertebral canal, but diseases of the cord can, in a general 
way, be recognized by examining its functions. This is 
done by essentially the same methods as are employed in 
making an examination of the brain. 

It is difficult in some cases to differentiate between diseases 
afl'ecting the cord and those affecting the brain, but since 
the cord is the seat of the reflex action, diseases afl'ecting 
it will, in many cases, destroy one or more of the reflex 
arcs depending upon what particular part of the cord the 
lesion occurs in. Therefore, all reflex action will be absent 
or modified posterior to the lesion. This, together with 
the fact that in diseases or lesions involving the cord alone 
no psychic disturbances, as a rule, are present, will serve 
to differentiate between them. 

MENINGOMYELITIS. 

Definition.— This is an inflammation of the spinal cord and 
its covering membranes. It is quite common in the dog and 
rabbit but rare in the other small animals. 



444 DISEASES OF THE SPIXAL CORD 

Etiology. — Mechanical. — Common causes of meningo- 
myelitis are traumatic injuries, such as blows in the region 
of the back or loins, being run over by vehicles, etc. 

Infectious.— It is also seen during or following the infec- 
tious diseases as distemper, rabies, pyemia, etc., and abscesses 
in the region of the spine, the pus burrowing between the 
vertebrse and attacking the meninges and cord occasion it. 

Pathology.— The membranes covering the cord are some- 
what thickened and show either diffuse or circumscribed 
areas of inflammation, and may be adherent to the cord itself. 
In other cases, depending on the cause, abscesses may be 
found involving both the membranes and the cord. If the 
condition is due to traumatic causes, the vertebrse may be 
broken or splintered with some portion pressing on the 
cord. The spinal fluid is increased in quantity and may be 
purulent in character. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms of meningomyehtis, unless of 
traumatic origin, appear gradually and become more severe 
as the disease progresses. They may vary from slight motor 
and sensory disturbances to complete paralysis. There is 
slight tTNitching of the extremities which is usually the first 
symptom noted. 

Disturbances of sensation are frequently observed as 
hyperesthesia, the animal showing pain when handled or 
even when stroked with the hand. Sjonptoms of paralysis 
are seen later, except when due to severe traumatic causes, 
when they may be the first and only ' s\Tnptoms shown. 
The patient has a staggering gait, sways from side to side 
when walking and finally drags its hind limbs. When 
placed on its feet, it will drop sideways on its hind quarters. 

If the lesion in the cord is far forward, the anterior limbs 
may also be involved. If in the cer^dcal region, however, 
death usually follows suddenly from respiratory arrest. 

The sphincters of the anus and urinary bladder are 
usually involved causing the feces and urine to pass involun- 
tarily, though there is usually constipation. Progressive 
paralysis indicates tumors pressing on the cord. If only 
the membranes covering the cord are involved, the spinal 
reflex is present and may be exaggerated. If a portion of 



CONCUSSION OF THE SPINAL CORD 4:4:5 

the cord itself is destroyed, reflex movement is absent 
posterior to the lesion. Consciousness is not disturbed. 

Diagnosis.— It is usually not difl^cult to differentiate 
between diseases of the spinal cord and those of the brain, 
but to state definitely the character of the lesion and its 
exact location should not be attempted. In diseases of the 
nervous system it is generally sufficient to state whether 
the brain or cord is affected. 

Prognosis.— In meningomyelitis, as in other diseases of 
the brain and cord, the prognosis is generally unfavorable, 
only a small percentage recovering. 

Treatment.— In the early stages give laxatives, as mag- 
nesium sulphate (8.0-12.0) or castor oil (15.0-40.0) and 
apply counterirritants to the spine. 

The faradic battery is useful in treating the paralysis, or 
strychnin almost to the point of intoxication. lodid of 
potassium may be given to resorb the exudate. 

The animal should be placed under good hygienic sur- 
roundings and kept clean and dry. 

CONCUSSION OF THE SPINAL CORD. 

Injuries of the Spinal Cord. 

Etiology.— This condition occurs quite frequently in the 
dog and cat from a variety of causes. These animals are 
subjected to extreme violence often by being run over by 
fast moving vehicles, by penetration of the spinal canal 
by sharp or blunt objects, or from the animal falling. ]Many 
cases such as described result in fracture of the vertebne 
with direct injury to the cord. Extreme muscular exertion 
combined with diseases of the bones (fragilitas ossium) will 
result in fracture and injury to the cord. The injuries 
to the cord with fracture of the vertebrtr often lead to 
hemorrhage between the membranes or in the spinal cord 
proper. Puncture into the spinal canal as has been practiced 
in certain cases, frequently terminates in edema of the cord 
and membranes from the irritation, or hemorrhage into the 
spinal canal. 



446 DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD 

Pathogenesis.— As soon as the injury occurs, and the cord 
either crushed or compressed by extravasated blood or 
serum, it loses its conductivity in proportion to the degree 
of the injury and compression. The conductivity of the 
cord may thus be either partially or entirely lost and the 
function of the nerves will be partially or completely 
destroyed in the area involved. In minor injuries with 
simply edema of the membranes or cord the development 
is gradual and the degree of involvement very slight. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms of compression or injury to 
the spinal cord will depend upon: (a) The location of the 
injury or portion of the cord affected; (b) the degree of 
compression or destruction of the cord. When the spinal 
cord is compressed or crushed in the cervical region the 
animal, as a rule, does not live over a few minutes or hours. 
Complete paralysis is observed posterior to the point of 
injury. The patient may be able to bring the muscles of 
the head into action for a short period preceding death. 
In cases of lesser injury or compression the sAinptoms are 
not so pronounced and the patient may be able to move 
certain groups of muscles. If the compression is due to 
edema of the membranes or hemorrhage into the cord or 
canal the symptoms are milder and gradually disappear 
in the course of a few days or weeks. 

Complete destruction of the cord posterior to the cervical 
enlargement will produce paralysis and complete loss in 
sensation in the limbs, tail and body. This is noticeable 
in the respiration as the ribs remain fixed and the respiratory 
movements are confined to the diaphragm. 

There may be retention of urine and feces, or they may 
be voided involuntarily. 

A^Hien the dorsal portion of the spinal cord is affected 
there will be paralysis of the posterior part of the body. 
In slight injury or compression there may be only inco- 
ordination of movement from the point of injury. 

Compression or destruction of the anterior part of the 
lumbar segment results in paralysis and anesthesia of the 
hind limbs, tail and muscles of the croup. When the 
injury is in the middle or posterior portion of the lumbar 



CONCUSSION OF THE SPINAL CORD 447 

segment the symptoms will be modified somewhat owing 
to the injury of the sacral segment which results in paralysis 
of the area supplied by the sciatic nerve. The sphincters 
of the bladder and anus respectively will be paralyzed and 
urine and feces discharged involuntarily. 

When the injury occurs in small animals spasms of adja- 
cent muscles will be observed. This is due no doubt to the 
injury producing stimulation to the nerve roots. On 
examination of the patient the temperature is often elevated, 
or it may be subnormal if the sphincters are relaxed and the 
thermometer inserted in the rectum. Palpation over the 
region of injury will cause the animal intense pain and fre- 
quently convulsions or spasms. Swelling is often present 
and crepitation may be detected. Abnormal movement of 
the vertebrae involved can be determined in the cer\dcal and 
lumbar segments. 

Diagnosis.— This is accomphshed only after careful exam- 
ination and consideration of the parts paralyzed. The 
determination of the degree of injury is often very difficult. 
There might be a complete paralysis resulting from edema 
and hemorrhage greatly resembling cases of destruction 
of the cord. However, the history of the case will assist in 
the differential diagnosis. 

Course.— In complete destruction of the cord in the 
cervical segment death may occur in a few moments or 
may be delayed for several hours. Should there be hemor- 
rhage only and partial paralysis the patient may live for 
several days and some will make a complete recovery. In 
involvement of the dorsal and lumbar segments the course 
will depend upon the degree of injury. In small animals they 
may live for several weeks or months. 

Prognosis.- A definite prognosis is often difficult to arrive 
at on account of the impossibility to determine the degree 
of injury in all cases. When there is evidence of complete 
destruction of the cord the case is hopeless. In cases of 
hemorrhage or edema most patients will make a complete 
recovery. At best the prognosis should be held in reserve 
until the exact condition can be determined. 



448 DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD 

Treatment.— No treatment will be of any value where the 
spinal cord is destroyed. If crepitation is present and 
distinct separation and movement between the involved 
vertebrae are detected it is ad\'isable to destroy the animal. 
If in doubt in regard to the actual condition the patient 
should be given a soft bed and quiet place. Good nourish- 
ing food (meat, milk) and gentle massage over the region 
injured will assist in the resorption. In the secondary 
stages small doses of strychnin sulphate (0.031) daily and 
electricity ha^'e proved to be beneficial. 

COMPRESSION OF THE SPINAL CORD. 

Definition.— A condition in which there is more or less 
disturbance in the function of the spinal cord from pressure 
by exostosis, tumors, abscesses, parasites, etc. 

Etiology.— Various diseased conditions will produce com- 
pression of the cord. The following are most common and 
important: (a) In the dog degeneration of the interverte- 
bral disks in which there is distortion and enlargement 
projecting into the spinal canal, narrowing its lumen and 
causing compression of the cord. This condition has been 
observed in certain breeds of dogs and in Belgian hares. 
The cause is no doubt injiuy to the disks by extreme mobil- 
ity or concussion, (b) Ossification of the intervertebral 
disks. This is found in older animals, mainly in old dogs. 
It may exist in an individual disk or what is more common 
a number of them will be affected producing rigidity of the 
vertebral column. The enlargements resulting from the 
ossification project into the spinal canal directly compres- 
sing the cord. The condition usually begins in the most 
mobile portion of the vertebral column. Fracture of the 
vertebrae without destruction of the cord may bring about 
a similar condition upon union of the fractured portions. 
The new bone formation projects into the spinal canal. 
(c) Tumors. In the dog sarcomas may cause compression 
of the cord by the tumor developing in close proximity to 
the vertebral column and the gro^-th extending through the 
intervertebral foramina. Other growths rarely produce this 



COMPRESSION OF THE SPINAL CORD 449 

condition, (d) A few cases have been observed in dogs and in 
rabbits in which Echinococcus granulosus cysts produced 
local pressure on the spinal cord, (e) Abscesses developing 
in the spinal canal are rare, but when found near the verte- 
bral column, the pus may burrow in between the inter- 
vertebral disks producing infection resulting in edema and 
inflammation. 

Pathogenesis.— Any of the conditions enumerated may 
lead to a reduction in the lumen of the spinal canal. The 
degree of injury or compression of the cord will depend 
upon the character of the course and the point of involve- 
ment of the vertebral column. 

Symptoms.— The rigidity of the spine and the careful w^ay 
in which the animal lies down and gets up are somewhat 
characteristic. Dogs exhibit considerable pain on mo^dng 
the spinal column by whining, crying, etc. In movement 
the animal is very cautious and often if recumbent refuses 
to arise when called. Examination of the patient reveals 
the rigid condition of the spine and the fixation of the 
muscles of the back. Forced movement of the vertebrse 
induces severe pain. Paralysis gradually develops posterior 
to the point of compression; sensation is partially or com- 
pletely destroyed, and involuntary passage of urine and 
feces follows from paralysis of the sphincter muscles con- 
cerned. 

Diagnosis.— An early diagnosis is often difficult ow4ng to 
the gradual development of the primary condition. A 
careful examination of the vertebral column, its rigidity, 
evidence of pain on movement, will assist in the diagnosis. 
It may be confused with muscular rheumatism. 

Prognosis.— This must be considered unfavorable in all 
cases. Recovery is very rare. 

Treatment.— Treatment is practically impossible. Oper- 
able tumors, when its cause, may be removed surgicall}^ 
Abscesses may be opened and drained, but owing to the 
complicating infection little can be expected in the way of 
recovery or even improvement. No internal treatment has 
proved of any value. Small doses of potassium iodid may 
be tried in the milder cases. 
29 



CHAPTER III. 

DISEASES OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS 

SYSTEM. 

INJURIES OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVES. 

Small animals are subjected to a variety of injuries which 
may involve the indi\idual nerves or nerve endings, such 
as bruises of the muscles, in which the nerve is crushed 
against the bones, or between muscles, or stretched or torn 
or the nerve is cut by sharp objects which is more frequent. 

PRESSURE UPON THE PERIPHERAL NERVES. 
COMPRESSION. 

Most frequently compression results from neoplastic 
formations (sarcomas, neuromas), from hemorrhagic extrav- 
asations, serous effusions into the tissues, enlargement of 
hTQph glands, fractures of bones or abscess formation. 

Neuritis undoubtedly occurs in small animals, particu- 
larly in dogs, and may result from a variety of causes. 
Chilling or subjection to extremes of temperature is 
perhaps most productive of the condition. The inflam- 
mation resulting is subsequently followed by paralysis in 
a number of cases. 

PARALYSIS OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVES. 

The following paralyses of peripheral nerves have been 
noted : 

Facial Nerve.— Dogs and rabbits are most often affected. 

Etiology. — (a) Traumatic influences play an important role 
in the unilateral form of facial paralysis (monoplegia facialis) 
by injuring the nerve at the point where it goes around the 
maxillary bone, (b) Neoplasms in the parotid region involve 



PARALYSIS OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVES 451 

the nerve and destroy its function either by compression 
or direct growth into it. (c) Inflammation of the middle 
ear, caries of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and 
tumors in the base of the brain often produce it. (d) Dis- 
temper (nervous form) producing an encephalitis will often 
result in paralysis of the facial nerve, (e) Exposure to cold, 
such as hunting dogs, or retrievers in which the surface of 
the body is suddenly subjected to the extreme temperature. 

A bilateral facial paralysis (diplegia facialis) is usually 
of central origin. 

Symptoms.— In case the entire nerve with. all its branches 
is paralyzed there will be paralysis of the ear, eyelids and 
lips on the side affected. The ear will droop, and the animal 
is unable to elevate it when called or excited. The eyelids 
hang downward and are immovable. The lip will be found 
soft, flabby and will not react to normal stimuli. When 
these symptoms are present the lesion is central. On the 
other hand, should there be a paralysis of the lips only, 
it would indicate a peripheral form of facial paralysis. 
Paralysis of the facial nerve arising from the central nervous 
system may have associated with it paralysis of other cranial 
nerves. This would complicate the symptoms. 

Diagnosis.— The symptoms are characteristic. A differ- 
ential diagnosis should be made between central facial 
paralysis and the peripheral form. This can be easily 
determined in most cases by noting the extent of the paralysis. 

Prognosis.— When there is complete paralysis of central 
origin it is considered unfavorable. However, if the con- 
dition has only temporarily affected the nerve the animal 
will recover. The exact condition of the nerve is impossible 
to determine. In the peripheral form the condition of the 
nerve at the point of injury is important. W'hen not 
destroyed the prognosis is favorable. 

Treatment.— In the peripheral form due to injury or chill- 
ing, the symptoms usually disappear quite promptly. The 
parts should be massaged thoroughly and the electric 
current api)lied daily over the region. Stimulating lini- 
ments massaged into the tissues are reconunended (soa}) 
liniment, camphor liniment, white liniment). If tumors 



452 DISEASES OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVES 

or abscesses are present they should be operated at once, 
care being taken to avoid injuring the nerve. In the central 
form nerve stimulants (strychnin sulphate 0.001 daily), or 
electricity should be employed. Usually in the course of 
ten days to two weeks improvement will be noticed. If 
after one month to six weeks no improvement is noted the 
chances are that the nerve trunk has been completely 
destroyed and further treatment is useless. Spasm of the 
muscles supplied by the facial nerve occurs occasionally, 
especially in dogs, no doubt due to the infection from dis- 
temper producing irritation to the nerve. It may also occur in 
meningitis and encephalitis. AYhen present the condition is 
characterized by clonic convulsions of the muscles supplied 
by the nerve. Sedatives would be indicated to reduce the 
irritation. 

Trigeminal Nerve.— Paralysis of this nerve is observed 
most often in dogs. 

Etiology.— (a) Rabies produces the greatest number of 
cases. Therefore, all cases of trigeminal paralysis should, 
be handled with caution until the exact cause is known, (h) 
Occurs in some cases from distemper, (c) Inflammation of 
the brain and concussion of the brain also cause it. (d) 
Injuries in which the motor branch is pressed or crushed. 
This happens not uncommonly in dogs from extreme open- 
ing of mouth, or carrying large heavy objects in the mouth. 
(e) Tumor formations, such as sarcomata in close proximity 
to the nerve, or abscesses. These conditions may either 
injure the nerve directly or by external pressure. (/) Rheu- 
matic conditions involving the muscles supplied by the nerve. 
(g) Neoplasms at the base of the cranium (angioma) . 

Symptoms.— The most pronounced s^miptom is dropping 
of the lower jaw, the mouth remaining open constantly. In 
such cases rabies should be suspected. In unilateral paralysis 
the animal may be able to close the mouth and masticate on 
one side. If all three branches of the nerve are paralyzed 
mastication and sensibility are lost. In case any individual 
branch of the nerve is paral^^zed that part supplied by that 
branch only will be affected. When the mouth remains 
open the tongue will protrude, become dry and discolored. 



PARALYSIS OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVES 453 

Saliva is usually profuse and flows from the open mouth. 
Attempts at eating and drinking fail. Food is swallowed 
when placed back in the mouth. 

Diagnosis.— The only difficulty in diagnosis is to determine 
the cause of the paralysis. The symptoms are, so charac- 
teristic that the actual condition is easily recognized. A 
differential diagnosis should be made to determine whether 
or not the animal is affected with rabies. The general con- 
dition of the animal, disturbance in swallowing, change of 
voice and paralysis in the posterior part of the body in 
rabies are indicative. 

Prognosis.— Should the condition result from trauma then 
the prognosis is considered favorable, otherwise unfavorable. 

Treatment.— If the paralysis is the result of rabies no 
treatment should be attempted. In cases due to other 
causes, give nourishing food (milk, chopped meat). This 
is best done either by placing the food well back into the 
mouth, or by the use of a stomach-tube. Massage the 
muscles thoroughly, using at the same time a stimulating 
liniment (soap liniment). Electricity may also be tried. 
Give internally tincture nux vomica (0.3-0.7) or strych- 
nin sulphate (0.001) daily. Spasms of the muscles supplied 
by the trigeminal nerve are observed in tetanus and in some 
cases of the nervous form of distemper. The muscles 
are either rigid as in tetanus, or contracting and relaxing 
rapidly as in some cases of distemper. Nerve sedatives 
should be used to control the spasms. Tetanus antitoxin 
and distemper serum respectively may be employed, depend- 
ing on the condition present. 

Auditory Nerve.— Etiology.— The true nerve of hearing 
(cochlear nerve) is not frequently paralyzed. However, it 
may be paralyzed from a congenital defect or inflammatory 
changes within the internal ear, or from diseases affecting 
the medulla oblongata. Paralysis of the vestibular nerve is 
very commonly observed in dogs, rabbits, fowls and pigeons. 
In practically all cases, however, it is the result of inflam- 
matory changes within the middle and inner ear. These 
changes may result from chicken pest, cholera, epitheliosis, 
contagious rhinitis (rabbit), or distemper. Causes of 



454 DISEASES OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVES 

minor importance are: Concussion of the brain, hemor- 
rhages in the middle ear, or caries of the petrous portion 
of the temporal bone. 

Symptoms.— Deafness is the pronounced symptom of 
paralysis, of the cochlear nerve. If bilateral and complete 
the animal will be totally deaf. In vestibular paralysis, 
when unilateral, the patient will assume a peculiar attitude 
holding the head downward and toward the normal side. 
In chickens the head is rotated to the degree that the comb 
will rest on the ground. In dogs and rabbits rolling move- 
ments are very prominent symptoms. This is so marked 
in some cases that it is impossible to hold the animal. The 
least irritation or disturbance will cause them to show it. 
Rolling movements always take place toward the normal 
side. Attempts at walking are difficult but if they succeed 
will travel in circles, often falling down and rolling over 
and over. The eyelids are often closed and the eyeball 
assumes an abnormal position. In case of bilateral vestib- 
ular paralysis, the head drops down and the muscles of 
the neck are limp. 

Diagnosis.— This should not be difficult, as the symptoms 
of deafness are easily manifest and the peculiar movements 
of the animal in vestibular paralysis are characteristic. 

Prognosis.— Should be considered unfavorable except when 
due to injuries. 

Treatment.— If due to injuries the animal should be kept 
quiet and if necessary fed artificially in order to maintain 
its general condition. The ears should always be exam- 
ined to determine their condition (disease or parasites). 
Pigeons, when affected, are isolated and the premises dis- 
infected to guard against contagious meningitis. Internal 
administration of magnesium sulphate or castor oil as a 
laxative is advised. No treatment can be applied direct 
to the seat of the condition. 

Radial Nerve.— Paralysis of this nerve occurs occasionally 
in the dog and cat. 

Etiology. — (a) On account of the position of the radial 
nerve it is easily injured by traumatism. Animals struck 
by objects, falling, jumping, etc., very commonly injure 



PARALYSIS OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVES 455 

the nerve with resulting partial or complete paralysis which 
may be temporary or permanent. (6) May follow muscular 
rheumatism or subjection to cold, (c) Follows infectious 
diseases, such as distemper in dogs and cats, (d) Has been 
observed from injury to the spinal cord, {e) Tumors and 
abscesses in the muscles may bring about at least a tempo- 
rary radial paralysis. 

Symptoms.— The radial nerve controls the muscles that 
extend the forelimb; therefore the most prominent symp- 
tom is inability to carry the limb forward. The joints are 
extended below the elbow and flexed above that point. The 
animal in moving forward drags the toe on the ground and 
weight cannot be supported owing to the difficulty of prop- 
erly placing the limb in the normal position. Some weight 
will be supported on the limb when it is placed in position. 
The degree of disturbance will depend upon whether the 
paralysis is complete or partial. Local examination reveals 
absence of inflammatory changes. There is usually a 
normal degree of sensitiveness in the skin. 

Diagnosis.— A careful examination should be made in 
the dog for they are inclined to favor the limb in the least 
disturbance. However, in many cases of injuries, the limb 
will be carried from the ground while in this case it will be 
just the opposite, dragged on the ground. Examine for 
thrombosis of the axillary arteries. 

Prognosis.— The larger number of cases recover. This is 
explained in that most cases result from injuries which do 
not seriously disturb the structure of the nerve. Few cases 
will be permanent. 

Treatment.— Massage the muscles and stimulate them by 
the use of the electric current. Nerve tonics may also be 
given. If no improvement is apparent in ten days to two 
weeks the case should be considered unfavorable. 

Brachial Plexus.— Paralysis of the brachial plexus occurs 
most commonly in the dog and cat. 

Etiology.— The majority of cases result from injury, from 
falHng or jumping from great heights. Fracture of bones 
adjacent to the plexus resulting in injury will produce it. 
Tumor formations and abscesses in the axillary region are 
also causes. 



456 DISEASES OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVES 

Sjonptoms.— The most prominent symptom is a limp, 
lifeless condition of the limb unable to support any weight. 
Sensation, as a rule, is lost in the entire limb. If the paralysis 
is partial only, the symptoms will be less prominent. 

Prognosis.— Most eases, inasmuch as they are due to 
injuries, recover completely in the course of a few weeks. 

Treatment.— Massage and nerve stimulants are useful. 
Keep the animal well nourished. 

Sciatic Nerve.— Etiology. — (a) Falling from heights and 
jumping. (6) Wounds and direct injuries to the nerve, (c) 
Infectious diseases (distemper), {d) Tumors and abscesses 
in contact with the nerve. 

Symptoms.— There will be paralysis- of the biceps femoris, 
the semitendinosus and the muscles below the stifle joint. 
In the dog the limb will hang relaxed and during forward 
movement the toe is dragged on the ground. Cases will be 
seen where the hair and skin are abraded from the anterior 
surface of the foot. There may be loss of sensation below 
the stifle joint. In bilateral sciatic paralysis it resembles 
lumbar paralysis to a certain degree. A differentiation 
should be made. Atrophy of the affected muscles will soon 
be noticeable. 

Prognosis.— If due to injuries it is favorable, provided the 
nerve is not completely destroyed. 

Treatment.— Massage and employ nerve stimulants. Pro- 
tect the feet from injury, give nourishing food and use 
the electric current. 

Paralysis of other nerves is occasionally seen but is of 
minor importance* 



CHAPTER IV. 
FUNCTIONAL NERVOUS DISEASES. 

VERTIGO. MEGRIM. 

Definition.— A condition characterized by dizziness and 
general disturbance of equilibrium (swooning). In small 
animals it is not very commonly observed, except in dogs, 
rabbits and pigeons. 

Etiology. — In these animals the condition is very seldom 
found as a primary disease. It is usually secondary to other 
diseases which it may follow. 

(a) Diseases of the brain, such as hyperemia, acute and 
chronic, or encephalitis, often produce the symptoms of 
vertigo. (6) Tumors, hemorrhage into the brain or mem- 
branes, concussion of the brain, or emboli of some of the 
cerebral bloodvessels may also produce it. (c) Defects of 
vision, or irregular lighting in which too sudden change 
takes place in the accommodation of the eye, have been 
cited as causes, (d) Diseases of the middle or inner ear. 
(e) Sudden change in the circulation of the blood in which 
there is cerebral anemia. Tight collars may produce the con- 
dition, or the dog pulling steadily on the leash may bring 
it about. (/) Reflex conditions from the intestinal tract 
(parasites or intestinal catarrh), (g) From poisoning, such 
as ptomains, certain poisonous plants, or overdoses of alcohol 
and other narcotics, (h) Pigeons are sometimes afl'ected })y 
a contagious or infectious disease having as its most promi- 
nent symptom vertigo. Large numbers may be afl'ected at 
the same time. 

Symptoms.— The early indication of vertigo is charac- 
terized by a sudden staggering gait. The animal falls 
down, becomes unconscious. It remains in this position 
quietly for a few moments, arises and soon assumes its 
normal condition. The individual attack is usually of 



458 FUNCTIONAL NERVOUS DISEASES 

short duration, from two to ten minutes. The time elaps- 
ing between the attacks is variable. The prodromal symp- 
toms are anxiety, staring expression, increased respiratory 
movements, and sometimes slight twitching of the muscles. 
When occurring in pigeons the number affected should be 
noted to determine whether or not an infectious disease is 
causing it. 

Diagnosis.— A differential diagnosis should be made be- 
tween vertigo and epilepsy. The main differential feature 
is the absence of convulsions in vertigo. The symptom 
vertigo is not so difficult to determine, but its causes may 
remain quite obscure. 

Prognosis.— Should not be considered very favorable as the 
cause is hard to determine. Individual attacks of the dis- 
ease usually do not cause any serious disturbance barring 
accidents and injuries. 

Treatment.— During an attack of vertigo the animal should 
be placed in a comfortable, quiet place and protected from 
injury. Following the attack the examination should be 
directed to find out the underlying cause and treatment 
applied accordingly. When the condition occurs in pigeons 
as a contagious disease, the entire premises should be dis- 
infected after the removal of all affected birds. Individual 
treatment in these cases is unsatisfactory. 

EPILEPSY. 

Definition. — Epilepsy is a disease of the central nervous 
system which is characterized by convulsions occurring at 
irregular intervals, the subject usually being unconscious 
during the attack. 

Etiology.— The cause of primary true epilepsy is unknown 
although it is regarded as being hereditary; at least the 
offspring of epileptic parents are markedly predisposed to 
the disease. This has been observed in man as well as in the 
domesticated animals. 

Pathology.— No postmortem lesions of any kind have 
been observed either in animals or man which would account 
for the disease. 

Symptoms.— In epilepsy the attacks come on suddenly, 
the animal performing uncontrollable movements. This is 



EPILEPSY 459 

followed by the subject falling to the ground or floor and 
in conM_ilsions of a clonic type. Generally every muscle is 
involved, including the facial muscles. There is champing 
of the jaws with salivation, the saliva being churned into 
foam and often blood-stained due to injuries of the tongue 
by the teeth. The visible mucous membranes are cyanotic; 
the heart beat is full and strong, and the respirations sus- 
pended. The convulsions last but a few seconds and 
gradually become weaker and finally cease. The animal 
lies quietly for a few minutes, then rises to its feet, staggers 
and finally recovers. The attacks do not occur at regular 
periods. The animal may have two or more in a day, or 
there may be weeks or months between attacks. 

Diagnosis.— It is difficult to differentiate between true 
epilepsy and secondary or reflex epilepsy which is merely a 
symptom of some other disease. A history of chronicity 
and the rather long periods between the attacks point to 
true epilepsy. Further, true epilepsy may be seen in both 
old and young animals while secondary or reflex is usually 
confined to the young. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable, as true epilepsy 
is considered incurable. 

Treatment.— If treatment is undertaken, the bowels 
should be kept open by feeding laxative food and, if neces- 
sary, the administration of laxative drugs as cascara sagrada, 
fluidextract (2.0-8.0), or sulphur (2.0-6.0) in the food as 
required. 

The periods between the attacks may be lengthened by 
the administration of bromides in full doses, the bromid of 
sodium being preferable (0.5-4.0). 

Castration is said to have a beneficial action in some cases. 

Reflex or Secondary Epilepsy.— This is seen as a symptom 
of several diseases occurring in small animals and somewhat 
resembles true epilepsy. 

Reflex or secondary epilepsy is sometimes seen in rickets, 
inflammatory diseases of the digestive tract, some infesta- 
tion with internal parasites, during the eruption of the 
permanent teeth, in constipation, and frequently distemper, 
especially the nervous form. 

It is seen chiefly in young animals, being quite rare in 



460 FUNCTIONAL NERVOUS DISEASES 

older, while true epilepsy affects the old as well as the 
young. This will assist in the differentiation between reflex 
and true epilepsy. 

Treatment.— Treatment must be directed toward the 
primary disease or condition producing the symptoms. 

CATALEPSY. 

Definition.— This is a peculiar functional disease of the 
central nervous system, probably of the cortex of the brain. 
It is characterized by a suspension of voluntary motion on 
the part of the subject, but when the position of the animal 
is passively changed, it will be maintained by the patient 
for a long time. 

Etiology.— The cause of catalepsy is not known, though 
it is probably of reflex origin. 

Pathology.— No pathological lesions of the central nervous 
system have been demonstrated. Degenerative changes in 
the muscles have been observed, also small hemorrhages 
in the stomach and intestines, but these are not constant. 

Symptoms.— The attacks come on rather suddenly, the 
animal becoming rigid, muscles hard and tense. The 
eyes are fixed and dull in appearance, the pupils may be 
dilated or contracted to the utmost. Sensation seems to 
be inhibited during the attack. The circulatory and respir- 
atory functions are undisturbed; temperature normal. If 
the position of the animal's limbs be passively changed it 
will remain in that position for a long time. 

Diagnosis.— This is made chiefly by passively changing 
the position of the body of the animal or its limbs. If it 
remains in this position without change for a considerable 
length of time, the attack is undoubtedly catalepsy. 

Course.- The course of the attacks is from four to twenty- 
four hours from which the animal usually recovers. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is not unfavorable, though the 
attacks may recur. 

Treatment.— The administration of antispasmodics is indi- 
cated. Give morphin (0.032-0.2) subcutaneously, or chloral 
hydrate (2.0-4.0) in emulsion per rectum. This will relieve 
the attack, but there is a tendency to recurrence. 



ECLAMPSIA 461 



CHOREA. 



Definition.— This is a persistent clonic spasm, or twitching 
of certain muscles, or group of muscles. It is oftenest seen 
in the dog; rare in other animals. 

Etiology.— Chorea results most frequently from acute 
infectious diseases as distemper to which it is a common 
sequel. It also occurs in myelitis, and in the early stages 
of rachitis. 

Pathology.— There is no demonstrable lesion observed 
even in the most careful examination which might account 
for the symptoms shown. Anemia is the most constant. 

Symptoms.— The twitching of the muscles is quite constant 
and usually involves those of the head and anterior limbs, 
though often one or both of the pelvic limbs may be involved. 
There is a peculiar dipping movement of the head and 
shoulders. Often the masseter muscles are the only ones 
involved producing a spasmodic movement of the jaws. 
Consciousness is not disturbed. 

These rhythmic spasms are less marked when the animal 
is alone and during sleep. The pulse and temperature are 
normal; the appetite unaffected. The disease is chronic and 
may persist for months or years. Young animals frequently 
recover without treatment. 

Diagnosis.— Diagnosis is not difficult. The history, the 
peculiar rhythmic spasms of certain muscles, and the absence 
of general symptoms point clearly to chorea. 

Prognosis.— Prognosis is good so far as the life of the animal 
is concerned, but bad from the standpoint of recovery or cure. 

Treatment.— Many kinds of treatment have been tried 
but none have given decided results. Arsenic in the form 
of Fowler's solution (0.1-0.75) once daily has proved helpful. 

Recently leukocytic extract has been administered experi- 
mentally with excellent results. The animal should be 
given nourishing food, and if anemic, iron preparations as 
iron and quinin citrate (0.2-0.7) are useful. 

ECLAMPSIA. 

Definition.— Echimpsi a is a tonoclonic spasm observed in 
bitches. It is associated, though in some cases quite remotely, 



462 FUNCTIONAL NERVOUS DISEASES 

with parturition. As a rule the animal is conscious during 
the attack. 

Etiology.— The cause of eclampsia is not definitely known. 
It occurs in pregnant bitches and as late as fifty days after 
whelping. It has been observed to follow exposure to cold 
in pregnant bitches, and following grief or anxiety owing 
to the loss of one or more of the puppies in suckling bitches. 

Symptoms.— The disease appears suddenly, usually about 
the second week after parturition, though it may occur 
before. Generally small delicate house dogs are affected. 

Early in the attack the animal becomes restless and has 
an anxious facial expression. Later motor disturbances 
are seen, the animal falls to the ground or floor in spasms 
of a tonoclonic, or mixed type, the legs sticking out stiffly 
as in tetanus. The muscles of the body and limbs are hard 
and tense, occasionally the limbs will relax and immediately 
become stiff again. The respiration is rapid, and the pulse 
accelerated, small and hard. Visible mucous membranes 
are congested. There is some salivation, the saliva being 
swallowed or dripping from the mouth. The eyes are open, 
pupil normal, and the corneal reflex present. The animal 
is conscious but unable to obey commands. The tempera- 
ture is normal or subnormal. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis of eclampsia is sometimes 
difficult. It might be confused with strychnin poisoning, 
a condition it closely resembles, but in eclampsia there is 
less hyperesthesia. It might also be confused with tetanus 
but tetanus comes on gradually, this being about the only 
difi^erential feature. 

Prognosis.— If the animal is presented for treatment 
early, the prognosis is favorable. Otherwise it is unfavorable, 
especially when the temperature is more than 1|° below 
normal. 

Treatment.— Give narcotics as morphin subcutaneously in 
full doses and keep the animal in a warm, quiet place. 
Chloroform syrup (1 c.c. of chloroform to 90 c.c. of simple 
syrup) in doses of 4.0-8.0 every fifteen minutes until the mus- 
cles relax, then at longer intervals as required, may be given. 

Puppies must not be allowed to nurse during the acute 
stage and should be kept away from the dam. 



PART X. 
DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 



CHAPTER I. 
NON-PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES. 

Examination.— Careful methods are required for an accu- 
rate diagnosis of skin diseases. Small diseased areas and 
the larger parasites, if not very numerous, may easily be 
overlooked in long-haired individuals, or in birds. 

In the majority of cases a microscopic examination is 
necessary to determine if a skin disease is parasitic or non- 
parasitic. If the former, it is necessary to identify the 
parasite in order to give the proper prognosis and treatment. 

Some few cases present certain rather characteristic 
features which indicate the real nature of the disease but 
the only accurate diagnostic method is by the use of the 
microscope. The larger parasites may be identified with a 
reading glass; the mange mites can be seen with a micro- 
scope, using low power, while high power is necessary to 
identify some of the vegetable forms. 

Microscopic Examinations.— l^'iih. a small, sharp curette 
scrape deeply into the skin at a point where the disease 
process is active until a mass of moist scrapings the size 
of a grain of wheat is obtained. Transfer this mass directly 
to a slide and moisten it with a drop of water. Put on a 
cover-glass and press down with a rotary motion to evenly 
distribute the material to the proper density. By this 
method animal parasites remain active, and their movements 
readily indicate their presence. For vegetable parasites 



464 NON-PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES 

In addition to the scrapings pluck a tuft of hair at the edge 
of the diseased area and mount as above. Examine with 
high power for the fungus along the hair near the roots. If 
the scrapings are to be examined later, secure a larger 
amount and put in a clean vial or ointment box. Smear 
slides cannot be made with this very well after it has dried. 
Usually it is best to boil it slightly in a 10 per cent, solution 
of KOH. Centrifuge it and withdraw some material from 
near the bottom with a pipette and mount with cover-glass. 

DANDRUFF. 

Definition.— The presence of fine, grayish-white scales on 
the skin or in the hair, which may affect the entire skin 
surface or small circumscribed areas. 

Etiology.— A mild superficial inflammation of the skin 
resulting in excessive exfoliation of the epidermis. Dandruff 
may be due to several causes, viz.: Bath soaps that are 
too irritating or used too often; irritating medicinal prepa- 
rations used on the skin, especially parasiticide preparations; 
direct sunshine on short-haired animals, especially when 
unaccustomed to it or those recently sheared. Parasites 
are a frequent cause; a mild attack of the demodectic para- 
sites will occasionally' produce no other symptoms. Internal 
disorders, especially digestive diseases favor the condition. 
V^ry often no assignable cause can be discovered. 

Symptoms.— The disease occurs chiefly on the upper 
surface of the body, especially on the neck, under the collar 
and along the back. The hair coat is dull and dry and the 
skin is covered with small grayish-white scales or dust. 
Itching is sometimes present. 

Diagnosis.— The presence of the scales indicates the condi- 
tion, and only the absence of parasites distinguishes it from 
parasitic diseases. 

Prognosis.— The disease runs a rather prolonged course 
but continued treatment usually effects a cure. 

Treatment.— Good nourishment is necessary if digestive 
disturbances are suspected as the indirect cause. Internal 
treatment with digestive tonics, especially preparations 



ALOPECIA 465 

containing arsenic for its action on the skin. The external 
treatment consists in cleaning applications with alkaline 
solution (sodium carbonate, 2 per cent.) and applications 
of salicylic ointment (10 per cent.). A solution of resorcin 
(5 per cent.) is very satisfactory as it does not soil the 
hair coat, nor cause dirt to adhere to it. It is best to clip 
the hair and brush the skin well before medicinal treatment 
is begun, and thereafter at frequent intervals. 

ALOPECIA. 

Definition.— A loss of hair, feathers or fur from large 
or small areas due to causes other than organic diseases or 
parasites. 

Etiology.— MechanicaL—Fowh, especially the males when 
penned, may pluck the feathers from the breast, denuding 
a large area. Female rabbits pull out their fur for use in 
preparing a nest for their young. 

Chemical. — Acids or strong caustics by deep action on the 
skin will destroy the hair follicles and when healing occurs 
the area is free of hair. 

Thermic. — Hot water, often intentionally applied, may 
act deeply enough to destroy the follicles and denude an 
area. Burns appear similar but more diffuse. 

The most common cause is deranged nutrition to such 
an extent that the hair falls out usually in patches over the 
body. A single area, so affected, and when the usual 
etiological factors are wanting, must be ascribed to a dis- 
turbance of the trophic skin nerves of that part. In one 
case the hair was lost each succeeding summer from pig- 
mented parts of the skin. No cause could be given. 

Pathology.— The hair appears to loosen in patches and fall 
out. The skin appears almost normal in some cases but 
usually somewhat dry and hard. In those cases following 
se^'ere wounds, scalds, or burns, the skin shows scar forma- 
tion. The microsco])ic examination for parasites is negative. 

Symptoms.— There appear on the skin small areas de- 
nuded of hair, which gradually become larger. The hair 
;io 



466 NON-PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES 

at other parts can be readily pulled out. The skin of fowls, 
when feathers have been plucked, appears apparently 
healthy, as does that of rabbits which have pulled out the 
fur. When due to wounds, scalds and burns the skin is 
thickened, often scaly and the hair around the affected 
area often • distorted from its usual direction of growth, 
appearing longer at the margins. 

Diagnosis.— This is made by negative microscopic exami- 
nation of skin scrapings, and inspection of skin for scars. 
Observing or inquiring into the habits of the animal affected, and 
a careful examination into its general condition are helpful. 

Differential Diagnosis.— Alopecia must not be confused 
with demodectic mange, which frequently causes loss of 
hair in small but gradually enlarging areas, nor with the 
depluming mite which acts similarly on fowls. 

Prognosis.— Good if due to general nutrition . disturbance. 
If from scar formation the loss is permanent, as is also true 
of trophic nerve disturbance. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in giving good food in 
proper amounts, and stimulating metabolism by tonics, 
especially those containing arsenic for its alterative action 
on the skin. Scarified areas, if small, may be overcome by 
complete removal of the areas and the healthy skin approxi- 
mated by suturing. Feather pulling may be prevented by 
allowing free range, or by using a device attached around 
the upper half of the beak which prevents complete closing 
but does not inconvenience the bird in eating or drinking. 
Fur pulling of rabbits is not objectionable when their habits 
are known. It may be overcome in part by supplying 
proper material for bedding just before parturition. 



DERMATITIS. 

Definition.— An acute or subacute, septic or aseptic 
inflammation of the skin. It may be local or general. 

Etiology.— Pam^ife,^. — Probably more inflammatory con- 
ditions of the skin in small animals are due to small parasites 



• DERMATITIS 467 

than to all other causes combined, therefore, such are consid- 
ered under parasitic skin diseases. 

Mechanical, — Traumatic causes may be pressure, as lying 
on hard floor, whipping, bites (flies), running through brush as 
hunting dogs do, excessive wagging of the tail, friction when 
bathing by use of stiff brush, and shaking the ears. 

Chemical. — Chemical agents as strong caustic soaps or the 
too frequent use of ordinary soap; irritating medicinal prepar- 
ations, as parasiticides improperly applied, or vesicatory 
agents as mustard. Acids intentionally applied, caustics 
as use of lime in dusting pens for poultry, and bee or wasp 
stings are also causes. 

Thermic. — Thermic causes are : Scalding, burning, freezing 
or exposure to direct sun rays of animals unaccustomed to 
it after having been sheared. 

Infections. — Infections of Bacillus necrophorus, especially 
in suckling young, produce serious necrotic sloughs of the 
skin. Secondary dermatitis is frequently seen during the 
course of distemper in dogs. 

Pathology.— The mild, acute form reddens the skin, which 
becomes sensitive, but is otherwise little changed. The 
subacute form is shown by a thickening and hardening of 
the skin. The skin feels rough and fissured. Any serous 
or hemorrhagic discharge soils the hair and forms crusts. 
The microscopic examination for parasites is negative and the 
skin itself shows an increase of connective tissue and general 
infiltration often to the extent of separation of the layers. 

Symptoms.— Pruritus is usually the first noticeable symp- 
tom which causes repeated scratching, rubbing on the 
ground or floor and licking the part. In hunting dogs, 
especially at the beginning of the season, the skin over the 
chest and anterior part of limbs, between the toes, and 
on the end of the tail, will be reddened and moist, often 
bleeding, while the dog is being used in the field. In dogs 
and cats following the use of strong or the too frequent use 
of bath soaps, and in poultry from dusting them in lime, a 
mild, acute, dift'use dermatitis ensues. Its persistence 
depends on the continuance of the causes. Sleeping on 
hard surfaces without bedding causes a chronic local der- 



468 NON-PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES 

matitis, especially in large dogs, which appears in the form 
of a thickened, roughened, hairless area over the elbow 
(scleroderma). A persistent form of dermatitis occurs as 
a result of injuries to the edge of pendulous ears and the 
irritation induces frequent shaking of the head which 
serves to aggravate the condition. Fly bites on the ears to 
the extent of producing severe inflammation are common. 

Diagnosis.— Negative microscopic examination with con- 
sideration of the several causes assists in making a diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— Good, especially in acute conditions when the 
causes can be removed. 

Treatment.— Mild acute forms may be treated success- 
fully with the application of lead water or drying powders. 
When crusts have formed, soiling the hair, a cleansing wash 
of a sodium carbonate solution (5 per cent.) repeated daily 
is very good and will relieve the itching usually present in 
this form. Chronic forms necessarily require longer treat- 
ment with preparations to soften the skin as lanolin or 
ichthyol ointment. The chronic form which occurs on the 
edge of pendulous ears can be successfully treated only by 
bandaging which prevents the animal shaking the ears. 
The bandage should be so applied that the affected tips are 
exposed for treatment with creolin ointment. This aids 
healing and prevents further injury from fly bites, the most 
usual source of this trouble. If the ears are very much 
thickened it may be advisable to remove the edges evenly 
and immobilize until complete healing occurs. Gangrenous 
dermatitis requires prompt treatment by removing the 
affected parts of skin and applying strong antiseptics. 

ACNE. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the glands of the skin 
with enlargement, appearing as small nodules in the skin. 
Quite frequently they pass on into pustules. 

Etiology.— Irritation of the glands by rubbing, or by the 
collar, or when there is an obstruction to the glandular 
openings by accumulations of dirt or medicinal substances 
which have been applied. Preparations, as creolin, con- 



ECZEMA 469 

tinued for a time may produce inflammation of the glands. 
The bacteria always present in the skin find favorable con- 
ditions in an obstructed gland and soon convert it into a 
pustule. Acne is secondary to an invasion of the hair 
follicles and glands with parasites. (See Demodex Mange.) 

Pathology.— Small elevations appear on the skin. They 
may be scattered or appear in groups. As the condition 
advances a few show a change to pustular form. 

Symptoms.— Small, round elevations varying in size up 
to that of a pea appear on above-mentioned parts of the 
skin. Inflammatory symptoms are present and the skin 
is quite sensitive. Small, clear vesicles appear and soon 
become turbid, rupture and their contents dry to form a 
scab. These scabs fall off and leave a small area denuded 
of hair for some time. Some nodules may gradually dis- 
appear in one to two weeks without disturbance of the skin 
or hair over them. All stages of the disease may be present 
at the same time. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is good. Recovery occurs in 
one to two weeks, either by pustular formation, rupture 
and escape of the contents, or by gradual reduction of the 
inflammatory process. 

Treatment.— Thoroughly cleanse the affected parts of the 
skin with a warm alkaline solution; in the nodular stage 
salicylic ointment (5 per cent.) may be used. As the 
nodules become softened the contents should be squeezed, 
after opening if necessary, and washed out with antiseptic 
solutions. Internally the administration of Fowler's solu- 
tion is usually beneficial. The use of tar, phenol, sulphur 
or salicylic acid preparations is contraindicated in cases of 
acne due to chemical irritations of the skin as they usually 
aggravate the condition. 

ECZEMA. 

Definition.— A chronic inflammation of the skin in the 
course of which papules, vesicles and pustules develop. 
Rupture of these complicate the condition by causing the 
skin to be moist and covered with crusts matted in the 



470 ' NON-PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES 

hair. Under these crusts infection flourishes and decom- 
position occurs, further irritating the skin. 

Etiology.— Various irritants which produce dermatitis 
may be the remote causes of eczema. The most frequent 
external cause is the accumulation of dirt on the skin, 
especially when the hair is long. Consequently the regions 
most commonly affected are the root of the tail, along the 
back, shoulders, neck and back of the ears. It is more 
common in long-haired dogs. Digestive disturbance has 
an indirect relation to eczema. Decomposing food is a 
common cause, as is overfeeding. Probably the most 
persisting forms of eczema occur in overfed, fat animals. 

Pathology. —The skin may show all the stages of inflam- 
mation from acute to chronic. As it is a chronic condition, 
the acute symptoms are usually induced by scratching or 
biting the parts. 

Symptoms.— The early stages appear as an ordinary 
dermatitis progressing through the various stages of inflam- 
mation until the pustular eruptions occur. Recovery may 
occur spontaneously at this time, or with proper treatment, 
but if not it passes on to the eczematous stage. Pustules 
continue to form and discharge their contents often unno- 
ticed, under the long hair and crusts. If sufficient to keep 
the skin moist it is commonly classed as weeping eczema. 
The itching is intense, and the frequent scratching, biting 
or rubbing removes the matted hair and crusts leaving a 
raw bleeding surface. The skin lesions may occur in one or 
more small areas or over a gradually increasing large surface. 
In consequence of continued efforts to relieve the itching by 
licking and scratching, the inflammation extends into the 
deeper layers of the skin. Healing occurs in three or four 
weeks with recurrence of the condition. The skin becomes 
thickened and fissured, and bleeds easily. Scales continue 
to form on these partly healed areas. Some of the hair bulbs 
atrophy or are destroyed and only a partial growth of hair 
reappears on the surface. A recurrence of the condition each 
succeeding summer is quite common in well fed house pets 
especially among well bred dogs with fine skins, as the 
poodle. 



ECZEMA 471 

Diagnosis.— A diagnosis can only be made by the exclusion 
of parasitic conditions and the more acute forms of dermatitis 
and acne. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in the earlier stages, but when the 
skin becomes thickened, hard and fissured, healing is as a 
rule only temporary, as acute relapses occur. When occurring 
as result of a chronic internal disease the prognosis is espe- 
cially unfavorable. 

Treatment.— Carefully cleanse the affected parts, remove 
all the crusts and scabs possible, and clip any hair that may 
be over the part and for some distance around the margin. 
Mild soap may be used for washing, also alkaline solution 
(sodium carbonate 5 per cent.). Upon the condition of the 
skin further treatment depends. If the surface is moist, 
drying powders can be used, such as talcum, zinc oxid, or 
boric acid. Liquid preparations of lead and zinc (Burrow's 
solution) are also very good. Proper internal treatment is 
important in all cases of eczema as has been shown by marked 
improvement from this form of treatment alone. Mild pur- 
gatives, especially calomel (0.06-0.12) or magnesium sulphate 
(8.0-12.0), for their antiseptic and laxative action repeated 
at two- or three-day intervals. Fowler's solution (0.19-0.58) 
daily for dogs gives the best general results and should be 
continued for a long time. Calcium chlorate (15.0-30.0) 
in solution daily acts to relieve the itching. A good diet 
of easily digested, non-irritating foods is essential. 



CHAPTER II. 
PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES. 

FLEAS. 

Description.— Fleas are large enough to be seen with the 
naked eye, but magnification is necessary to distinguish the 
species. They are a jumping insect without wings, brown in 
color and about 2 to 4 mm. long. The female is the larger. 
They obtain nourishment by sucking blood. The}^ readily 
pass from one animal to another and may reside in dust, 
iilth, etc. The eggs are dropped or deposited on the ground 
or floor and hatch in six to twelve days. The final transforma- 
tion into perfect insects requires three to five weeks depending 
upon the temperature. 

Occurrence.— The dog is the most commonly affected of 
the small animals, with the Ctenocephalus canis, the 
common dog flea. The Pulex irritans of man will also live 
on dogs. The cat (Ctenocephalus felis) is rarely affected 
except when closely associated with infested dogs. They 
suffer considerable annoyance but the fleas soon leave of 
their own accord. Hares and rabbits harbor the rabbit flea 
(Pulex gonivcephalus), but may also be the hosts of the dog 
and human flea. On fowls, pigeons and other birds the bird 
flea (Pulex avium) is parasitic. 

Symptoms.— Fleas are most common on dogs and pigeons. 
Sedentery, feeble or young animals, or those nursing young, 
or birds incubating eggs, are particularly susceptible; also 
animals kept in close quarters. Fleas are tormenting and 
harm the animal chiefly by disturbing rest and quiet. Large 
numbers may produce chronic skin eruptions, but the most 
damage to the skin results from frequent and persistent 
scratching which produces irritated areas on the skin of the 
neck, back of the ears, and back of the forearm. The skin 



LICE 473 

is soiled with the excrement of the parasite which appears 
as brown specks scattered through the hair. Birds pick and 
scratch the skin to reheve the irritation and pluck at their 
feathers. Severe infestations in young or feeble animals 
may finally cause death from exhaustion. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is eas}" by identifying the flea. 
It is well to be careful not to attribute a severe condition to 
fleas alone as smaller parasites may also be present. 

Treatment.— The destruction of fleas on dogs and cats is 
best effected by the use of creolin (1 to 2 per cent.) solution. 
It is cheap, only slighth' toxic and may be applied to the 
entire skin surface at one time, and will destroy all fleas with 
which it comes in contact. The odor which persists for two 
or three days will prevent further infestation only for that 
period, consequently a thorough cleansing of the premises 
and the repeated use of the creolin solution in the kennel 
are necessary for permanent relief. Creolin is somewl at 
irritating to the animal's eyes which may be avoided by 
careful bathing. Owing to the odor it is not advisable to 
use it on house pets. Instead pyrethrum or insecticide pow- 
ders containing same should be used by dusting it well in the 
hair or feathers and then brushing it out in fifteen to thirty 
minutes. Serious results have followed the too liberal and 
careless use of it. Frequent cleansing of both animals and 
quarters is discouraging to these pests. The use of powdered 
tobacco in the bedding or sprinkling the floor with creolin 
solution usually serves to prevent further infestation. Dogs 
permitted free range will soon become reinfested from asso- 
ciation with others. The nests of birds may be kept free 
from lice by mixing powdered tobacco with the straw. Gum 
camphor may be used in the same way. 

LICE. 

Description.— The louse as ordinarily classed covers all 
the wingless parasites which do not jump. Lice do not leave 
their hosts except the fowl louse which drops oft' after engorge- 
ment with blood to return again when the birds return to 
roost. They are dull white in color except when engorged 



474 . PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES 

with blood. The eggs, commonly called nits, are firmly 
glued to the hairs or feathers. The young are similar in 
shape to the adults but only attain full size after several 
changes. The females are larger and more numerous than 
males. Phthiriasis or lousiness is a term applied to the con- 
dition of an animal or bird infested with lice. Two kinds of 
lice affect small animals: The Linognathus pi liferus which 
obtains nourishment by sucking blood, and the Trichodectes 
latus which lives by eating the epidermal scales and hair. 
The former may be recognized by its elongated head; the 
head of the latter is short and broad. The common louse of 
the dog is the Linognathus piliferus (Hematopinus piliferus), 
which may also live on ferrets, and the Trichodectes latus. 
The cat louse is Trichodectes subrostratus, and a rare species 
of Linognathus piliferus is sometimes found on rabbits. 
Several species of blood sucking lice infest fowls and birds, 
chiefly the Menopum trigonocephalum, while a larger one, 
the Menopum biseriatum, is most commonly found on the 
heads of young chicks. By cohabitation of the different 
species of fowls parasites peculiar to one of the species may 
be found on others. Other animals or man coming in contact 
with articles where lousy fowls roost will become infested, 
but the lice soon leave their illegitimate host and the irritated 
condition soon ends unless conditions favor further infesta- 
tion as when straw is used from barns where fowls roost. 

Symptoms.— The blood-sucking louse causes the most 
annoyance. Consequently dogs and fowls are the greatest 
sufferers. The dog is not so frequently infested nor does 
he suffer as much as fowls in w^hich phthiriasis is a serious 
condition, causing the birds to lose their rest and become 
emaciated. It also . interferes with the rearing of young. 
While incubating, when conditions are ideal for a rapid 
increase in these parasites, fowls suffer to such an extent as 
to be compelled to leave the nest, or remaining, often die 
from exhaustion from loss of blood and irritation. Newly 
hatched chicks are frequent sufferers from large numbers of 
lice especially the large ones on the head. The dog does not 
seem to resent the presence of lice as much as fleas, hence 
scratching and rubbing is less pronounced. A mild derma- 



SCABIES— MANGE— RED MANGE— ITCH 475 

titis may result from both parasitic wounds and scratching 
especially along under the surface of the neck. Fowls and 
birds scratch and pick themselves and pluck feathers, and, 
as the parasites increase gradually, exhibit all the symptoms 
of cachexia. With increasing numbers of lice emaciation 
increases, the birds appear droopy and a few may finally 
die from exhaustion. Canaries and parrots are frequent 
sufferers with the same symptoms. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis of lice is easy when the size of 
the species is known. Numbers sufficient to cause noticeable 
symptoms are readily seen. Mange in dogs has been occa- 
sionally overlooked because the pruritus was ascribed to 
lice. 

Prognosis.— Phthiria sis is serious and obstinate when young 
or feeble animals are affected, or when the number of animals 
is large and they have extensive range. Ordinarily it is not 
serious if treated, as many remedies are efficacious. Exten- 
sive obstinate cases reported have often proved to have a 
coincident infestation with mange mites. 

Treatment.— Cleanliness discourages lice. In short-haired 
animals it is most easily attained. Long-haired animals should 
be closely clipped. and thoroughly brushed. The use of a 
creolin solution (2 per cent.) is very effective. It may be 
used as a bath and applied to kennel and runways. For 
poultry frequent applications of creolin (2 per cent.) or other 
parasiticides to the roosts and nesting places are sufficient 
for most of the birds. A small amount of oil of anise applied 
under the wing has proved of value in the treatment of 
canary birds. Sulphur and lard (5.0-20.0) has also been used. 
Those showing severe symptoms should have special treat- 
ment. Tobacco or gum camphor placed in the nests is usually 
necessary to protect incubating fowls and little chicks. 

SCABIES. MANGE. RED MANGE. ITCH. 

Definition.— Mange is a contagious disease of the skin due 
to so-called mites. 

Etiology.— Two kinds of mites, the Sarcoptes and the 
Demodex, are the chief ones found on small animals. They 



476 PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES 

are quite small and can only be recognized when highly 
magnified. 

Sarcoptes Mite. — This is the most common mange mite 
and is distinguished by its tortoise-like appearance, an 
elongated horseshoe-shaped head, and four pairs of short, 
thick legs. In the male, which is the smaller, the first and 
f om*th pairs of legs are provided with a distinct cup-shaped 
disk, but only the first and second pairs are so provided in 
the female. The other legs are each supplied with a long 
bristle. These parasites make burrows in the skin where they 
live and obtain nourishment and in which the female deposits 
eggs. The eggs hatch in five to eight days and the parasite 
is fully developed in two to three weeks. They increase 
rapidly. It is estimated that a million and a half are pro- 
duced in three months, under favorable conditions, from a 
single female. The sarcoptes mite varies slightly in size and 
minor details according to the species of animal upon which 
it lives. This makes several varieties which are sometimes 
described as so many species. Most of the sarcoptes mites 
live exclusively on their particular host, but, due to intimate 
association, may be found occasionalh- on others. 

Pathology. — The skin shows symptoms of chronic inflani- 
mation varied according to the severity of the attack. In 
mild cases dry crusts and scales cover the surface while the 
severe ones show a much wrinkled and sometimes moist 
surface. Fresh, bleeding areas may be associated ^-ith the 
condition as the result of scratching or rubbing the part. 

Sarcoptes Mite of the Dog [Sarcoptes scabiei, variety canis). 
—This is the common mite found on the dog. Sarcoptic 
scabies may appear on any part of the body but usually 
around the head. If imchecked it gradually spreads, becom- 
ing generalized in four to eight weeks. Scratching and rub- 
bing induced by the intense primtus are the first noticeable 
symptoms. Small red spots appear followed by papules and 
pustules and these, ruptured by scratching, lead to formation 
of moist areas which continue to spread. The areas first 
invaded soon become dry. Yellowish-gray crusts form and 
gradually scale off. The hair falls out during the process. 
The skin becomes thickened and shows wrinkles and thick 



SCABIES— MANGE^RED MANGE—ITCH 477 

folds. The dog gives off an offensive but characteristic odor, 
and is repulsive in appearance. Emaciation increases, and, 
if not treated, death occurs from cachexia and exhaustion. 
In some cases the skin remains dry with profuse desquama- 
tion of bran-like scales; it may be and often is mistaken for 
a non-parasitic condition. 

Sarcoptes Mite of the Cat (Notoedres cati,var. caii; Sar copies 
minor, var. ca^i).— Scabies of the cat usually affects the head 
and neck, only occasionally invading the legs. The acute stages 
are less marked than in the dog, probably due in part to less 
violent scratching. The process continues with slight pustular 
eruption and the formation of crusts. Sometimes, especially 
when irregularly treated, it continues for months as a very 
mild condition with only slight thickening of the skin and 
scanty crust formation. The crusts are most noticeable on 
the edges of the ears and there is often a slight loss of hair 
on top of the head. In more severe cases the skin becomes 
thickened, hard and wrinkled. The eyelids become involved 
resulting in an intense conjunctivitis. The thickening of the 
skin around the nostril openings may be sufficient to interfere 
with respiration. The animal gradually becomes emaciated, 
exhausted and death occurs usually in four to six months. 
Young animals die earlier. 

Sarcoptes Mite of the Rabbit {Notoedres cati, v:ir. cuniculi; 
Sarcoptes minor, var. cuniculi). — In rabbits scabies attacks 
chiefly the skin of the head, particularly around the eyes, 
nose and at the base of the ears. It frequently extends to the 
hind and sometimes to the forepaws. The lesion resembles 
that seen in cats. Itching is intense inducing continual 
scratching and rubbing; the fur falls out and thick, gray 
scabs appear. As the process continues the eyes become 
surrounded by masses of dry exudate. Conjunctivitis is also 
present. By aff'ecting the Hps prehension of food is difficult. 
Emaciation appears- early, and, if untreated, the animals 
invariably die in three to five months. The disease is highly 
communicable and serious in young animals. 

Sarcoptes Mite of the Ferret [Sarcoptes scahiei, rar. hi/dru- 
chaeri). —ThiH disease in ferrets is usually confined to tiie 
head and feet. The aft'ected skin is usually found covered 



478 PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES 

with dirty yellow crusts. Crusts also form on the plantar 
surface of the feet and at the root of the claws which become 
swollen and distorted. To relieve the intense itching the 
animal frequently scratches and bites itself, at times gnawing 
the feet so viciously that they become severely wounded. 
Walking is difficult, the weight being thrown on posterior 
parts of the foot. A disagreeable odor is exhaled from the 
animal. 

Sarcoptes Mite of the Fowl {Cnemidocoptes mutatis, Sarcoptes 
m idans, var. gallince) . —These parasites burrow under the scales 
on the featherless parts of the skin of the feet and legs. The 
resulting exudate elevates the scales and there is a formation of 
a white granular matter agglutinated by the exuded serum. 
Irregular masses of crusts separated by fissiu-es continue to 
form and usually involving all of the skin on both legs. They 
are firmly adherent and when detached leave the skin raw 
and bleeding. The crusts become of a soft, spongy consist- 
ency due to the numerous furrows excavated by the parasite. 
Movements of the joints aggravate the condition; walking 
and even standing are difficult and painful. Occasionally 
an entire toe may drop off. The course of the disease is 
slow, the fowls become emaciated and finally die from 
exhaustion. 

Diagnosis. — An accurate diagnosis is possible only by a 
careful microscopic examination. Otherwise sarcoptic mange 
may be mistaken for many other diseases of the skin. It is 
essential to detect and identify the parasite before a correct 
diagnosis can be made. 

Prognosis.— Mild cases with local lesions only may be 
treated with very good results. This is especially true in 
cats. Severe cases, where the process affects the entire skin 
surface, are almost incurable especially if symptoms of 
emaciation and exhaustion are present. 

Treatment.— It is necessary to remove all the hair coat, if 
long. A possible exception may be made when the disease 
is strictly localized as in cats. Cleanse the skin and remove 
all scales and crusts by using an alkaline wash (sodium 
carbonate 2 per cent., or soapy water) applied with a fairly 
stiff brush. However, indiscriminate brushing should be 



SCABIES— MANGE— RED MANGE-ITCH 479 

avoided in localized cases as it may tend to spread the dis- 
ease to healthy parts of the skin. Care must be observed in 
washing the cat, rabbit and ferret as they do not endure 
bathing very well. In some cases softening of the crusts is 
advisable which may be accomplished by using carbolated 
oil or glycerin. For dogs, even in the early stages with only 
small areas affected, vigorous treatment is advisable and 
careful repeated inspection is necessary to detect new areas. 
This is especially true in long-haired individuals. Most any 
of the parasiticides are more or less effective and failures are 
due as much to improper application as to the preparation 
used. Alcohol or aqueous preparations are convenient to 
apply but they are less energetic than those prepared with 
an oleaginous base. These will adhere to the skin longer 
and at the same time penetrate to the deeper layers. They 
should be applied generously and well rubbed in. Care should 
be taken to avoid irritating the conjunctiva when applying 
in the region of the eyes. Application may be made imme- 
diately after cleaning the skin, and repeated daily for four to 
six days, followed by another thorough cleansing. This 
course of treatment must be continued with three or four- 
day intermissions until itching disappears. Prevent the 
animal from licking the applications by muzzling or the 
addition of a bitter substance such as aloes. ' Many remedies 
have been used to destroy the mites. The following give 
good results and are least objectionable. 

Sulphur ointment is one of the most common preparations 
used for the sarcoptes mite. It gives better results when 
used against the Notoedres cati of the cat and Cnemido- 
coptes mutans of the chicken. A more active preparation 
must be used on the dog. The following mixture is recom- 
mended : 

I^ — Creolini 30.0 

Phenol 15.0 

Sulphur flor 60.0 

01. terebinth 120.0 

Aq. ammonii 90.0 

01. lini GOO.O 

Kerosene 1200.0 

Misce et fiat emulsio. 



480 PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES 

Daily application may be made over small areas but in 
generalized cases only a part of the body should be treated 
at a time. The mixture is irritating, hence when the animal 
shows signs of exhaustion its use should be discontinued for 
a few days. Other preparations used are balsam of Peru in 
alcohol (5 to 10 per cent.), creolin ointment, styrax ointment 
(5 per cent.). 

Demodex Mite.— Etiology.— Demodectic scabies is pro- 
duced by the parasite, Demodex folliculorum. This parasite 
lives in the hair follicles and sebaceous glands, locations 
favoring much irritation and making treatment most difficult. 
The demodex mite is decidedly different in appearance from 
the sarcoptes. Its body is elongated, and provided with 
eight short legs emanating from its anterior third. The 
posterior part tapers to a blunt point. The head is short 
and thick. The total length is about six times the body 
width. Some one of the many varieties may be found on all 
kinds of small animals. The dog, however, is the principal 
sufferer. Cats are rarel}^ attacked. 

Pathology.— The skin in mild cases shows only slight inflam- 
matory symptoms. In severe cases the skin is greatly 
thickened, and shows intact or ruptured pustules. In micro- 
scopic cross-sections the parasite is found within the glands 
and follicles. 

Symptoms.— The early indications of demodex mange are 
the presence of isolated inflammatory areas from one-half to 
two inches in diameter. The hair covering them appears as 
though clipped off closely. The condition gradually spreads 
and may cover the entire bod}^ Occasionally demodex 
mange occiu*s in the well named squamous form. In this 
there is only slight irritation and no marked inflammatory 
symptoms. The hair becomes thin, and gray- white scales 
cover the skin. This condition may continue without change 
for months especially when the dog is brushed and bathed 
frequently as may be done with house pets. The disease 
makes progress by a gradual peripheral spread over the skin, 
or less often by the occurrence of new isolated areas over the 
body. The skin thickens, pustules develop and erupt form- 
ing crusts; the hair falls out. Emaciation follows and the 



SCABIES—MANGE— RED MANGE— ITCH 481 

animal becomes cachectic and exhausted. Prm-itus is present 
from the beginning and frequent scratching and rubbing are 
the most noticeable symptoms. 

Diagnosis.— A positive diagnosis can be made only by 
identifying the parasite under the microscope. As these 
parasites live deep in the skin it is necessary to make the 
scraping accordingly. 

Prognosis.— Favorable if local and treated in the early 
stages; unfavorable if generalized. Recovery may be 
obtained by proper treatment which may require eight to 
ten weeks. In severe cases with sjinptoms of cachexia and 
exhaustion present the treatment usually hastens the fatal 
termination. 

Treatment.— Mild localized cases may be treated without 
washing or brushing. Generalized cases with crust forma- 
tions require thorough cleansing with soap or alkaline solu- 
tions and all hair removed. As the demodex live deep in the 
skin glands it is evident that severe and vigorous treatment 
is required to effect recovery. Every parasiticide known has 
been used either alone, or in combination but without 
success. One mixture deserves mention as many cases have 
recovered after its prolonged use. It is not toxic, and will 
not be licked off. 

I^— Creolini 30.0 

Phenol 15.0 

Sulphur flor 60.0 

01. terebinth 120.0 

Aq. amnionii 90.0 

01. lini 600.0 

Kerosene 1200.0 

Misce et fiat emulsio. 

This may be applied daily over diseased areas. If the 
entire body is affected, only one-third of it should be treated 
at a time. A thorough skin washing should be given once a 
week. If the animal shows ill effects of the treatment after 
a time, it may be discontinued for a few days and a dressing 
of oil substituted. Avoid the eyes in applying it; keep the 
patient in a warm place. Feed well and stimulate the appe- 
tite with tonics. A saturated solution of balsam of Peru in 

31 



482 PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES 

alcohol (1.0-5.0) has given good results but the odor is objec- 
tionable in house pets. Animals being treated with oily or 
fatty preparations must be kept in a warm place as the heat 
radiation from the body is increased by such application. 

DERMATOMYCOSIS. 

Vegetable Parasitic Disease of the Skin. 

Definition. — A communicable disease of the skin produced 
by fungi, somewhat similar to ordinary molds. Several 
species of fungi have been found to produce skin diseases. 
From the standpoint of clinical diagnosis they may be divided 
into two classes. Identification is possible only by their 
cultural characteristics. These parasites occur on the skin 
in the form of mycelia or filaments which may or may not 
be segmented. From these segments spores are formed which 
in turn, germinate to form new mycelia. The spores are 
round or oblong and under the microscope strongly refract 
the light. 

Examination.— The mycelia and spores are extremely 
small and require high power magnification. A smear slide 
made with scrapings from the crusts or scabs, examined under 
high power, will show them as small, rounded spores either 
scattered or in chains. The segmented mycelia may also be 
recognized. It is advisable to pull a few hairs from the dis- 
eased area and examine near the roots for masses of fungi. 

HERPES TONSURANS. 

Ringworm. Red Itch. 

Etiology. —This disease is produced by the Trichophyton 
tonsurans or other similar forms of fungi which are usually 
classed as the trichophyta. 

Pathology. —The fungi develop around the shaft of the 
hair and extend down into the follicle but not to the root. 
The hair becomes brittle, splits and breaks off close to the 
skin. The enormous number of spores that grow in the 
follicles and beneath the epidermis set up inflammation, 
especially in the parts of the skin thickly covered with hair. 



HERPES TONSURANS 483 

Symptoms.— Ringworm occurs in all small animals but 
is most common in the dog. The lesions may be found on 
any part of the skin but usually appear on the head and 
legs, parts frequently in contact with objects harboring the 
parasite. 

Ringworm is characterized by small, well defined, circular 
areas. By increasing in size and number they merge to 
form irregular, large patches. At first slightly reddened, 
these areas soon are covered with dirty, gray crusts or 
scabs. Irritation is variable, at times very intense inducing 
scratching and rubbing which remove the crusts and leave 
the surface raw and bleeding. Small nodules are some- 
times seen, due to swollen hair follicles. Most of the hair 
is broken off. On those areas where pruritus is absent the 
crusts remain, become thicker and agglutinate the hairs. 
Suppuration proceeds beneath the crusts and an offensive 
odor is emitted. In general the condition is less severe and 
more superficial than sarcoptic scabies, but the spread is 
more rapid. When the condition involves a greater part of 
the body general disturbance follows. Suppuration beneath 
the scabs ^permits of the absorption of toxins which poison, 
and the constant irritation exhausts the animal. 

Diagnosis.— Accurate diagnosis is possible only with the 
microscope. The well defined, circular areas covered with 
short hairs in most cases and the rapid progress may be indic- 
ative. 

Prognosis.— Very good if treated before the animal becomes 
emaciated and exhausted. Spontaneous recover}^ is exceed- 
ingly rare. 

Treatment.— In a generalized case, except in short haired 
animals, remove all of the hair. Where only isolated spots 
occur clip the hair well back from the margin. Remove the 
crusts, softening them if necessary with lard, oil or ointments. 
Cleanse the skin by washing with a soapy or alkaline (sodium 
carbonate) solution. 

This parasite is not very resistant, hence most of the, anti- 
parasitic preparations give good results. Inasmuch as the 
fungus is somewhat susceptible to fats the medicinal agents 
should be apj)lie(l in oils or ointments. These prevent fur- 



484 PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES 

ther spread of the fungus and in addition are soothing and 
protective to the irritated skin. 

CreoHn or iodin ointment is recommended and gives 
good results. These may be appUed once daily for a week 
followed by a thorough cleansing. Continued treatment 
depends upon the appearance. Small areas may be treated 
with pure tincture of iodin, two or three applications a week. 
A strong solution of bichlorid of mercury (1-500) is also 
quite efficient. Careful inspection must be made frequently 
for new disease areas. Powdered aloes will prevent the 
patient licking off the ointment. 

If other animals are kept near care must be taken to 
prevent the spread of the disease. All removed hair, crusts, 
also the bedding used by the patient, should be destroyed. 
Cleanse the sleeping quarters with a strong solution of 
bichlorid of mercury. Restrict their range to prevent con- 
tamination of runways and yards. Cleanse and disinfect 
all utensils and other articles used about them. 

FAVUS. 

Honeycomb Ringworm. Covih Disease. White Comb. 

Etiology.— This disease is due to a fungus, the Achorion 
schonleinii. It occurs chiefly in cats, mice and rats, but also 
in dogs and rabbits. The type affecting birds is caused by a 
special fungus similar to the trichophyton and designated 
as the Lophophyton gallinarum, commonly called "white 
comb" or "comb disease." 

Pathology.— The fungus localizes itself in a hair follicle. As 
it develops it gradually extends over the surrounding skin 
forming a yellowish crust. Immediately beneath it the skin 
atrophies, becomes moist and around the edge of the lesion 
appears an inflammatory swelling producing a cup-shaped 
depression at the bottom of which the crust is attached. 
This crust is composed mostly of the fungus material, mixed 
with hair or epithelial masses. 

Symptoms.— Fa vus usually appears about the head espe- 
cially in cats but the feet are also commonly affected. This 



FAVUS 485 

is due to the infection being acquired from mice and rats 
affected with the disease. In dogs and cats the lesions appear 
as a sulphur-yellow, circular mass depressed in the center 
and free at the edges, the size of a ten-cent piece. A number 
of areas in contact do not merge but encroach upon one 
another producing irregular shaped figures. In birds the 
crusts are thinner than in mammals and the areas tend to 
coalesce until a large surface is formed covered by a creviced 
crust. When feathered parts of the skin are invaded the 
feathers fall out. The disease may extend all over the body. 

Pruritus is rare and it is seldom that the crusts are rubbed 
or scratched off. 

Diagnosis.— The presence of the sulphur-yellow, fa vie cup 
and slow growth make it easily recognized. In birds the 
mouldy appearance and progressive growth indicate the 
character of the disease. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is favorable; the disease may 
heal spontaneously. If far advanced and generalized in 
birds it is usually fatal. 

Treatment.— Remove the crusts with a blunt instrument 
damaging the skin as little as possible. Wash or otherwise 
cleanse the skin and apply tincture of iodin diluted well with 
alcohol. Bichlorid of mercury (1-500) is equally good. 
Dilute silver nitrate solution (2 per cent.) may also be used. 
Usually 5 to 6 daily treatments are sufficient. 



PART XI. 



DISEASE OF THE EAR. 

Examination.— The external ear (concha) in dogs varies 
greatly in size depending upon the breed and size of the 
animal. It is easily examined by direct inspection. Careful 
examination should be made for wounds, bruises, hematomas 
and scars. Long hairs in certain breeds (cocker spaniels) 
will interfere to a certain degree with the examination. In 
cats and rabbits an inspection of the external ear can be 
made without difficulty. Note sensitiveness to manipulation. 

The external ear canal can be inspected in ordinary day- 
light but the examination is facilitated by the use of an ear 
speculum and mirror to reflect the light to the bottom of the 
canal. The operator should exercise care in the examina- 
tion by either muzzling or taping the animal. Examine 
the external canal for inflammation, tumors, foreign bodies, 
cerumen accumulations and parasites. 

WOUNDS OF THE EAR. 

Various degrees of wounds are observed involving the 
concha. Bites from other animals are the most common 
causes. The lesion may be a simple scratch or cut in the skin 
or the entire structure may be split in various degrees. Exten- 
sive wounds are often found in all the animals. Constant 
shaking the head especially in long eared dogs often leads to 
extensive injury to the outer margin of the concha. This 
mode of injury is often brought about by the parts being 
irritated by insects (flies) and parasites (Otodectes cynotis). 



488 DISEASES OF THE EAR 

In some animals the thick^ heavy, cartilaginous conchal base 
may be fractured by external violence. 

Symptoms.— In dogs careful shaking of the head and hold- 
ing it to one side, crying and evincing pain when the ear 
comes in contact with objects are often noted. Careful 
inspection will reveal the nature and extent of the wound. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in most cases. In dogs with long 
ears, and when the wounds are extensive, it is difficult to 
prevent their shaking the head and aggravating the wound, 
which will materially influence the healing process. 

Treatment. —In recent wounds the edges should be care- 
fully cleaned, straightened with the scissors if necessary, and 
approximated with sutures. To facilitate union in some cases 
it is necessary to bandage the ears over the top of the head 
using a cap to cover the entire head to hold them in place. 
Frequent dressing (twice daily) is advisable. Apply boric 
acid powder as an antiseptic and to prevent adhesions of the 
parts b}' the secretions. When extensive tearing of the entire 
structure is found, it is necessary in some cases to remove 
a portion of the ear-flap. In this case it is best to remove a 
similar portion of the normal ear so that the ears will be 
s^'mmetrical after healing takes place. 

ULCERATION OF THE CONCHA. 

This condition occurs most frequently in dogs and espe- 
cially in the breeds possessing long pendent ears. The ulcer- 
ous process is found in nearly all cases on the edge of the 
concha. 

Etiology.— Occurs in most cases from injuries with more 
or less constant shaking of the head. The irritation thus 
produced keeps up the injury and interferes with union of the 
parts. Ulceration is most frequent during the fly season. 
The irritation produced by the flies causes the animal to 
shake its head violently, injuring still further the wounded 
parts. This is observed especially in older animals. Other 
diseases such as otitis and eczema produce it in a similar 
manner. Hunting dogs are frequently affected from the ears 
becoming injured while going through brush, briers, etc. 



HEMATOMA 489 

Symptoms.— -The condition is easily diagnosed as the ulcera- 
tion is observed on or near the edge of the ear-flap. The 
constant shaking and holding the head to one side are the 
most pronounced symptoms. On examination the part is 
usually found edematous, hot, painful and more or less hemor- 
rhage present. Dried blood will be found on the margins of 
the ear-flap. Should the Assuring be deep it may be infected 
with pus. 

Prognosis.— Should not be made very favorable as there is 
usually some loss in the ear-flap, which in some animals 
would be serious by disfiguring. Further, the condition is 
often resistant to treatment. The prognosis is less favorable 
in old animals. 

Treatment.— The part should be first washed with an alka- 
line soap, to remove all dried crusts and other accumula- 
tions. Apply silver nitrate solution (2 per cent.) to stimulate 
granulation. Follow by an antiseptic dusting powder (iodo- 
form; xeroform). One of the essential factors is to protect 
the ears from further injury and irritation. This is best done 
by bandaging the ears over the top of the head and using a 
head cap. Frequent dressing with the above materials is 
advisable. If the condition is due to insect bites the animal 
should be protected. In hunting dogs the ears should also be 
protected from further injury by light head cap or bandage. 

HEMATOMA. 

Hematomas are frequently found in dogs with long pendent 
ears. Other animals are seldom affected. 

Etiology.— This condition is brought about through trau- 
matism. Very often it occurs secondary to otitis or ulcera- 
tion of the concha. The hematoma results from a rupture 
of the capillaries and an extravasation of blood or serum 
between the skin and conch al cartilage. 

Symptoms.— As a rule hematoma develops suddenly. The 
animal holds the head sideways, the affected ear down and 
frequently shakes its head. The ear-flap is sensitive to the 
touch, and a distinct bulging of the skin on the upper or 
lower surface is noted; both surfaces may be iuA'olved. The 



490 DISEASES OF THE EAR 

enlargement will be found sensitive, hot and fluctuating. 
When of older standing the acute symptoms will be absent 
and some organization of tissue will be found around the 
margins of the enlargement. 

Diagnosis.— This is made on the location of the enlarge- 
ment, the fluctuation and the absence of marked inflamma- 
tory symptoms. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in most cases. 

Treatment.— Several modes of remedial procedui'e have 
been used. The principles involved in the treatment in 
order to be successful consist in the evacuation of the con- 
tents, maintaining the separated tissues in contact so that 
union can take place, and keeping the ear-flap quiet. This 
is best accomplished perhaps by the following: Shave the 
hair over the area and thoroughly disinfect the surface by 
painting with iodin. Make the incision at the most pendent 
portion of the enlargement and of sufficient length to permit 
all the serum, blood clots and organized tissue to be removed 
completely. Press out all the fluid and bring the separated 
tissues in contact with the cartilage. Eetain in contact by 
suturing with interrupted sutures which pass through the 
concha. The sutures should be placed so that the skin is 
held in intimate contact with the cartilage at all points. A 
dressing of iodoform should be applied and the ears band- 
aged over the top of the head to ensure a quiet position and 
sufficient external pressure to prevent any further collection 
of serum. The dressing should be changed daily. In a week 
or ten days the sutures may be removed and the bandage 
discontinued. This method must be rather rigidly adhered 
to if good results are expected. Other methods such as 
removing the collection of material and injecting Lugol's 
solution or tincture of iodin have been used. . 

OTITIS EXTERNA. OTORRHEA. 

Involvement of the internal portion of the external ear 
with various degrees of inflammation is very common in 
dogs with long pendulous ears and in rabbits from parasitic 
invasion. It is frequently unilateral, but in a number of 



OTITIS EXTERNA— OTORRHEA 491 

cases both ears are involved. Middle aged or older animals 
are affected most commonly. 

Etiology.— There are a variety of things ha\'ing to do with 
the cause of this condition: {a) Accumulations of cerumen 
and dirt are common causative factors. These substances 
cause irritation to the skin resulting in inflammation and 
pyogenic infection. Animals with long pendent ears tend to 
retain these materials and decomposition and infection are 
thus formed, (b) Retention of debris from acute attacks 
leads to further irritation and often produces a chronic form 
of the disease with considerable thickening of the tissues. 
(c) In young animals the condition is frequently associated 
with distemper. Secondary infection during the progress 
of the disease involves the auditory canal, {d) Occasionally 
in dogs, but more commonly in rabbits, invasion with the 
parasite Otodectes cynotis occurs. In this case the entire 
canal is involved, even the internal ear. The parasites pro- 
duce extensive irritation and an aggravated form of the dis- 
ease, {e) May result from ulceration of the concha and 
hematoma by extension of the process from continued 
irritation. 

Symptoms.— In the early stages and when the condition 
is acute the animal shows restlessness, shakes and scratches 
its head and ears ^tith its paws almost continuously, and 
rubs them against objects. Along the margins of the ear is 
often noticed a blood-mixed discharge. Direct examination 
reveals the ear to be hot, sensitive and the surface covered 
with a thick waxy secretion. Owing to the swelling of the 
skin and contiguous tissues an ear speculum is often neces- 
sary in order to examine thoroughly the lower portion of the 
canal. During the later stages ulceration takes place and 
more or less extensive pus formation is found. Palpating 
the base of the concha and exerting some pressure a thick, 
dark colored discharge will be forced out. The head is 
usually held in a fixed position, and if one side only is afl'ected 
it will be held to that side. The condition may produce tem- 
porary or permanent deafness. In rabbits, when due to 
parasites, nervous symptoms are very common. This has 
been observed in dogs. 



492 DISEASES OF THE EAR 

In the chronic form there will be extensive proliferation 
of connective tissue projecting out into the auditory canal. 
The mass is irregular in form, often pedunculated, and T\dll 
in some cases close the entire opening. 

Diagnosis.— The characteristic discharge and other s\Tnp- 
toms as described make the diagnosis simple. Examination 
of the discharge should be made carefully to determine 
whether parasites are present or not. 

Prognosis.— In the acute form, favorable. After extensive 
proliferation of tissue has taken place the prognosis is less 
favorable and recovery is difficult. 

Treatment.— Both ears should be examined carefully to 
determine the degree of involvement. It is essential in the 
first place to remove all dirt and cerumen which has accumu- 
lated. This is best accomplished by taking pledgets of 
cotton or gauze on a dressing forceps, saturate them in ether, 
thoroughly swabbing out the whole canal until all the debris 
is removed. In this cleansing process all of the small inter- 
stices between the swollen masses should be opened and 
swabbed. The ether solution is necessary in order to dis- 
solve the cerumen. With the scissors cut away all super- 
fluous hair in the canal. Dry cotton or gauze should then 
be used in making the surface perfectly dry and also to remove 
any excess of ether which might be retained. An antiseptic 
powder (boric acid; xeriform; tannoform) is worked down 
carefully into the canal to produce antiseptic action and to 
prevent the secretions adhering to the skin surface. This 
treatment should be applied daily until the inflammation 
and swelling subside. 

In the chronic form with proliferation of tissue and ulcera- 
tion the canal should be cleaned as described and the surface 
thoroughly cauterized with stick silver nitrate. To prevent 
undue cauterization follow by salt solution. After the ulcera- 
tive process is reduced antiseptic treatment can be substi- 
tuted. Several weeks' treatment is often required in this 
form. Should the animal continue to shake the head and 
aggravate the condition a head cap may be employed for a 
few days. In long-eared dogs the ears should be examined 
every few weeks as there is danger of recurrence. Should 
parasites be present treat with antiparasitics. 



TUMORS— NEOPLASMS OF THE EAR 493 



OTITIS MEDIA AND INTERNA. 

This condition is not very common in small animals. It 
occurs most frequently in rabbits from parasitic invasion. 
The diagnosis is difficult as the condition is usually compli- 
cated with involvement of the auditory nerve, or pachy- 
meningitis. Xo treatment is of any value. Sedatives would 
be indicated to control the nervous symptoms. 



TUMORS. NEOPLASMS OF THE EAR. 

Neoplastic formations are not so common in this location. 
Papillomata occur commonly on the inner surface of the 
outer ear, but malignant tumors are rarely seen. Distentions 
of the sebaceous ducts are occasionally seen. 

Papillomata.— These are found on the margins of the skin 
or in some portion of the vestibule of the ear and appear 
as single or multiple excrescences. They are flat, oval or 
cauliflower-like in their growth. The surface is smooth or 
roughened and frequently covered by a thick, greasy material. 

Symptoms.— The presence of tumors often leads to irrita- 
tion and may produce otitis. (See Otitis.) On examination 
they are observed either as isolated single tumors or multiple 
tumors and with smooth or irregular surface. They are 
often pedunculated and stand out prominently. When in 
the lower portion of the canal they may completely occlude 
the opening. The diagnosis can be made positive by micro- 
scopic examination. 

Prognosis . —Favorable . 

Treatment.— Operation is advisable. When large numbers 
are present the animal should be anesthetized and the entire 
surface cleaned and disinfected. The tumors are removed 
as close to the base as possible, best by the scissors. The 
base should be cauterized by the actual cautery. The after- 
treatment consists in keeping the part clean and using an 
antiseptic astringent powder (tannoform). If necessary a 
head bandage or cap may be used to keep the ear quiet, 



494 DISEASES OF THE EAR 

Sebaceous Tumors or Cysts.— These are recognized by 
their rounded, weh-defined appearance, absence of inflam- 
matory s}Tnptoms, and the character of the contents. 

Treatment.— The cyst should be opened weh, all of the 
secretions pressed out, and tincture of iodin applied to 
destroy the gland. It may be necessary in some cases to 
open into the gland and destroy it by silver nitrate or the 
actual cautery. 

PARASITES IN THE EAR. 

In the rabbit and dog the Otodectes c} notis and the 
Dermatophagus canis are frequently found producing a more 
or less intensive form of otitis. 

Symptoms.— During the early stage of invasion the symp- 
toms are not very pronounced. Later as the parasites 
increase in numbers and they extend farther down into the 
canal, the patient carries its head at an angle, whines, and 
rubs its ears against objects. Rabbits often show marked 
nervous symptoms from the irritation of the internal ear and 
auditory nerve direct. On examination there Avill be found a 
similar condition as in otitis. Tiny white or reddish specks 
will be visible in the discharge and when examined under a 
low power microscope or reading glass, the parasites are seen 
and recognized without difficulty. 

Diagnosis. — This is made positive by the presence of the 
parasites in the discharge. 

Prognosis.— Favorable. Most cases will recover unless 
nervous symptoms are present indicating the involvement 
of the internal ear. Such cases should be considered hopeless, 
especially in rabbits. 

Treatment.— Local applications have proved quite satis- 
factory in these cases. Remove all crusts, secretions and 
debris with a solution of alcohol or ether. Dry the surface 
by using a swab of cotton or gauze. Apply paraffin oil to 
the entire surface, or a solution of carbolic acid (5 per cent.) 
in paraffin oil. Other oleaginous compounds may be used. 
Thoroughness in the application is important in order to 
destroy all parasites present. Daily applications are advis- 
able. 



EAR FISTULA 495 



DEAFNESS. 

Etiology. — This condition is observed from diseases affecting 
the internal ear, from closure of the external canal or it may 
be congenital. Paralysis of the auditory nerve may be the 
result of general infection (distemper) or ptomain poisoning. 
Deafness is noted very commonly in puppies, sometimes 
several in a litter will be affected. This no doubt is due to 
improper development of the auditory nerve or other struct- 
ures of the internal ear. The condition is acquired in some 
cases from disease processes and infection extending to the 
internal ear. Complete closure of the external canal will 
produce at least a temporary deafness. 

Symptoms.— The most pronounced symptom is failure to 
obey commands. Puppies deaf from birth do not bark or 
make any definite sounds. In congenital deafness the 
examination will reveal nothing abnormal with the external 
ear. In acquired deafness in some cases the cause may be 
found, such as closure of the external canal. 

Prognosis.— Unfavorable in all cases of congenital origin 
or in cases due to external infection or parasites entering and 
destroying the internal ear. It is favorable in some cases 
of closure of the external canal with cerumen or tumor 
formation. 

Treatment.— In congenital deafness no treatment seems to 
be of any value. If the deafness is due to paralysis of the 
auditory nerve small doses of strychnin would be recom- 
mended (0.001 once daily). Examination of the external 
meatus should be made and, if closed, it should be dilated 
and the cause removed. 



EAR FISTULA. 

Etiology. — Dentigerous cysts are occasionally found in the 
temporal region and have their opening in the auditory canal. 
Wounds of the cartilage of the ear, either from sharp objects 
penetrating this region or from other causes may lead to a 
fistulous opening. 



496 DISEASES OF THE EAR 

Symptoms.— The presence of a thick, white, glutinous dis- 
charge either into the auditory meatus or to the outside 
should be regarded with suspicion and the parts thoroughly 
examined. Often the hair will be removed at the point of 
discharge and the material collect, become dried and form 
crusts. Pressure over the region will often reveal the point 
of discharge. The introduction of a small flexible probe will 
make the diagnosis positive. There is in nearly all cases 
some enlargement in the tissues adjacent to the fistula. 

Prognosis.— All fistulse invohing the cartilage of the ear 
should not be considered in favorable light. As the process 
is a progressively destructive one, healing is difiicult. 

Treatment.— The part should be shaved and cleansed 
thoroughly. Introduce a flexible probe to determine the 
extent of the fistula and the tissue invaded. A free opening 
is made and all necr.otic tissue removed. Pack the wound 
with iodin gauze. A head bandage should be employed to 
keep the pack in position. Dress the wound daily. After 
a few days it may be treated as an open wound. Some cases 
will require amputation of the concha. This, however, 
should be avoided if possible. 



PART XII. 
DISEASES OF THE EYE. 



CHAPTER I. 
DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 

Examination.— This is easily accomplished in ordinary 
daylight, or artificial light. The following points are worthy 
of consideration: (a) Xote the position of the lids, whether 
they are normal or the degree of abnormality if present. 
(6) Xote the reaction of the lids to ordinary stimuli. This 
is important to determine different degrees of sensitiveness. 
(c) Inspect the margin of the lids to determine whether or 
not the outline is regular, the presence or absence of the 
eyelashes, (d) Palpate the external surface for irregularities, 
tumors, etc. (e) The condition of the hair and surface of the 
eyelid should be inspected for wounds, denuded areas, 
eczema, mange, etc. (/) Evert the lids noting the resistance 
of the supporting structure and the condition of the conjunc- 
tival surface. 

Various positions and reactions of the lids bear an impor- 
tant relation to difi'erent forms of paralysis and other diseases. 

WOUNDS OF THE EYELIDS. 

\ arious degrees of wounds are found involving the eyelids. 
Lacerations of different degrees are quite common from 
injuries or having the lids caught on sharp objects and torn. 
These wounds may involve only the margin of the lids, the 
skin covering the cartilage, or the entire structure. Even 
32 



498 DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS 

slight wounds on the Hds should be considered important on 
account of the deformity, entropion or ectropion which might 
result. 

All wounds should be examined thoroughly in order to 
determine the actual condition present. The wound should 
be cleaned and washed with boric acid solution (2 per cent.). 
Approximate with sutures and cover the surface with flexible 
collodion or airol paste. After adhesions have taken place 
the sutures may be removed and a dusting powder applied. 
Irritating substances should be avoided to prevent irritation 
to the eye proper. 

When edema is present as a result of the injury, warm 
water applications are useful. If abscesses develop they 
are opened, drainage effected, and boric acid powder applied. 
All wounds should be given careful attention to prevent 
complications in the eye itself. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE EYELIDS. 

Blepharitis. 

Definition. —An inflammation of the eyelids often leading 
to edema and suppuration or abscess formation. 

Etiology.— Several factors have to do with producing this 
condition: (a) Wounds and bruises often develop into 
abscess formation, (b) Mange, particularly follicular, is a 
frequent cause in dogs; and sarcoptic mange in cats. * (c) 
Eczema, (d) Exposure to cold winds, water, etc., seen in 
hunting dogs, (e) Spread of inflammation from the conjunc- 
tiva. (/) Foreign bodies penetrating the lids, such as brier 
barbs, etc. 

Symptoms.— The condition is self-evident. An examina- 
tion should be made to determine the cause of the inflamma- 
tion, whether it is due to parasites, trauma, eczema, or other 
things. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is favorable in most cases unless 
complications involving the eye are present. 

Treatment.— Treatment must be applied to remove the 
cause of the condition. When due to mange mites non- 
irritating antiparasitic agents are recommended. Balsam 



MALPOSITION OF THE EYELIDS 499 

of Peru has been very satisfactory for this purpose. In 
eczema the surface of the lid should be freed of all scales, 
and other accumulating material by washing, and astringent 
antiseptics applied either in the form of solution or dusting 
powder. Abscesses when present should be opened and 
proper drainage afforded. All foreign bodies present must 
be removed and the wound treated with boric acid solution 
(2 per cent.). 

MALPOSITION OF THE EYELIDS. 

Several malpositions of the eyelids are met with, especially 
in dogs. Certain breeds of dogs are predisposed thereto from 
their breeding. The abnormalities most often found are: 
(a) Entropion, (b) ectropion, (c) ptosis, (d) paralysis of the 
orbicularis, and (e) spasm of the orbicularis. 

Entropion.— Definition.— An inversion of the ej^elids either 
in part or the entire lid. Entropion is usually complicated 
with trichiasis in which the eyelashes cause more or less 
direct irritation and injury to the conjunctiva and cornea. 
The condition is present in the upper lid in most cases on 
account of the difference in form. 

Etiology.— It often results from the cicatrization of wounds, 
chronic inflammation of the lids, and mange. 

Symptoms.— The eyelid is turned inwardly against the 
cornea. The eyelashes coming in contact with the cornea 
produce inflammation, suppuration and in some cases ulcera- 
tion. There is copious discharge of tears, and pus. The 
conjunctiva will be found reddened and congested. 

Prognosis.— Favorable. The condition can be corrected 
in the majority of cases. 

Treatment.- The injury to the cornea or conjunctiva may 
be treated with boric acid solution (2 per cent.). Surgical 
treatment is necessary in order to afford permanent relief. 
An elliptical piece of skin is removed from the eyelid, parallel 
to the margin and about one-eighth to one-quarter inch 
from the edge of the lid. 

Entropion forceps are used to grasp a sufficient fold of the 
skin so that wlien it is removed and sutured the edge of the 



500 DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS 

lid will be drawn outward or e\'erted. Care should b'e used 
to avoid injury to the deeper structures or the margin of the 
lid. A certain amount of judgment is necessary to determine 
the amount of skin to remo^'e in each case. After operation 
the wound is covered with an impervious dressing (flexible 
collodion, airol paste). In two or three days the sutures 
may be removed. Recovery is prompt and complete in 
most cases. Eye complications should be treated according 
to their condition. 

Ectropion.— Definition.— An e^'ersion of the eyelid in part 
or the whole lid. It is rare in animals. Some breeds are more 
predisposed than others (bloodhounds, pointers). The lower 
lid is most frequently involved due to the lesser curvature as 
compared to the upper. 

Etiology.— The common causes of this condition are: 
Wounds with cicatrix formation, lacerations of the margin 
of the lid, ulceration and abscess formation of the lid, and 
inflammation of the conjunctiva. All of these conditions 
tend to force the margin of the lid outward. Paralysis of the 
facial nerve allows the lower lid to fall outward. 

Symptoms.— The prominence of the conjunctiva of the 
lower lid and the formation of a more or less deep gutter 
from the separation of the palpebral edge from the cornea 
are present in all cases. The conjunctiva is reddened, 
thickened, and there is a more or less constant flow of tears 
down over the face. 

Prognosis.— The majority of cases can be relieved by 
surgical means. It might be possible that the operation will 
need to be repeated to properh' approximate the parts. 

Treatment.— In mild cases, resulting from congestion of 
the conjunctiva, relief is afforded by remo^dng the cause and 
treating with mild astringents and antiseptics (0.5 to 1 per 
cent, zinc sulphate solution). 

When the conjunctiva is chronically thickened forcing 
the palpebral edge outward, it is ad\isable to remove a 
portion of the conjunctiva. The resulting contracture of 
the wound in heahng will bring the lid back in position. 
Codrenin solution should be instilled into the tissues before 
operating to reduce the pain and control the hemorrhage. 



MALPOSITIOX OF THE EYELIDS 501 

Several operations have been used successfully in relieving 
this condition. The removal of a V-shaped portion of the 
lower lid, leaA'ing the margin of the lid free, and bringing the 
edges of the wound together with sutures has been successful. 
This forces the margin of the lid upward and inward. The 
amount of tissue removed will depend upon the degree of 
correction to be made. 

Another method frequently employed is to remove a tri- 
angular piece of skin just outside of the external canthus 
and on a direct line with the lower lid, the base of the triangle 
being upward. Sutures are applied and the traction of the 
sutures and the cicatricial tissue formed keeps the lower lid 
pulled upward. In this case the size of the triangle will 
depend on the degree of ectropion present. 

These operations should be made under strict antiseptic 
precautions and the parts protected. If necessary a head 
bandage with eye protector can be used. 

Ptosis. — Blepharoptosis.— Definition.— A dropping or fall- 
ing of the upper lid so that it continuously covers the eye. 
It may occur as a symptomatic condition in conjunction 
with other local affections, such as atrophy of the e^'eball, 
enophthalmos, etc. 

Etiology.— The causes are various: 

(a) It may be sympathetic, resulting from paralysis of the 
cerncal sympathetic nerves. Wounds and injuries to the 
nerve, or growths, or enlarged glands, in its cervical or intra- 
thoracic course will produce ptosis. 

(b) Ptosis is often paralytic produced by a paralysis of the 
muscles of the upper eyelid, either due to a lesion of the 
muscle or its nerve supply. 

(c) It may result from fracture of the orbital rim or process 
of the frontal bone. 

(r/) Tumors pressing on the cerebrum or cerebellum have 
been known to cause it. 

(e) Ptosis often follows distemper, and other general dis- 
eases. 

(/) A ery often tumor formation on the upper eyelid will 
gradually overcome the muscular action and drag tl:e eyelid 
downward. 



502 DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS 

Symptoms.— The position of tlie upper eyelid, which hangs 
downward and partially covers the eyeball, is characteristic. 
All movements of the animal indicate its inability to move 
the eyelid to any degree. The most important thing to be 
considered is the causative factor, and the examination should 
be made to determine it, if possible. 

Treatment. — The treatment should be applied to remove 
the cause. If s^onpathetic and the lesion apparent an attempt 
should be made to correct it. Very often the cause is central 
and cannot be removed. Potassium iodid in small doses 
is indicated. If of paralytic origin nerve stimulants, such 
as strychnin sulphate (0.001 daily) may be tried. Tumor 
formations on the eyelid should be removed conserving as 
much of the lid as possible. 

Paralysis of the Orbicularis Nerve.— Definition.— Paralysis 
of the facial nerve, probably of central origin, may be periph- 
eral in which the eye is held open, the lower lid relaxed 
falling away from the eyeball. 

Etiology.— The cause of paralysis of the orbicularis may 
be wounds or contusions of the nerve leading to temporary 
or permanent paralysis. When of central origin it often 
results from hemorrhages in contact with the nerve at the 
point where it leaves the brain; or thrombus formation in the 
left posterior cerebellar artery interfering with the nutrition 
of the nucleus of the facial nerve. Tumors of the brain, and 
chronic lesions resulting from distemper have also been 
found to produce it. 

Sjrmptoms.- The lack of symmetry of the two sides of the 
face is the most apparent symptom of facial paralysis. The 
side paralyzed has a relaxed and drooped appearance. The 
eyelid will be drooped to a degree and cover a portion of the 
eyeball but cannot be closed producing a condition of lag- 
ophthalmus. There is a very noticeable absence of winking 
of the lids. Palpation of the lids will at once reveal their 
condition. 

Prognosis.— If of peripheral origin and resulting from simple 
contusing a favorable termination may be looked for. How- 
ever, if indications point to central origin the condition is 
often permanent. The degree of injury to the nerve will 



TRICHIASIS 503 

determine the prognosis. Unfortunately in many cases this 
cannot be accurately determined. 

Treatment.— As the eye cannot be completely closed, the 
cornea is exposed and may become dry and injured. An 
attempt should be made to correct this if possible. Oily 
collyria should be instilled in the eye two or three times daily. 
Massage over the course of the nerve trunk with a stimulat- 
ing liniment (white liniment, soap liniment) often produces 
good results. Internal administration of strychnin sulphate 
(0.001-0.0025 once daily) should be continued for a few 
days. If no results are obtained from the treatment after a 
course of two to three weeks further medication should be 
discontinued. 

Spasm of the Orbicularis Nerve. — Blepharospasm.— 
Definition.— A tonic or clonic spasm of the eyelids. It may 
occur periodically or be continuous. In the tonic form the 
eye is more or less permanently closed and constitutes 
usually a reflex symptom of a local eye disease, such as kera- 
titis, panophthalmitis, conjunctivitis, or the presence of 
foreign bodies in the eye. Naturally the vision is interfered 
with by the original affection as well as by the spasm of the 
orbicularis nerve. 

Clonic blepharospasm is observed in dogs following dis- 
temper when chorea-like movements are a sequel. Rapid 
contractions and relaxations of the lid (winking) take place. 
Twitching of the muscles of the face and ear often are asso- 
ciated with the eye symptoms. 

Treatment.— An examination of the eye should always be 
made to determine the cause of the condition. If the symp- 
toms result from local affections, treatment must be applied 
to relieve the special condition. If no local involvement can 
be found, treatment is out of the question. Twitching of 
the eyelid as a sequel to distemper may disappear in a few 
weeks, or may remain permanently. Treatment has been 
unsatisfactory. 

TRICHIASIS. 

Definition.— An abnormal position or direction of the eye- 
lashes. The condition, as a rule, is not observed in animals 



504 DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS 

unless the lashes are directed toward the cornea and more or 
less injury to this membrane occurs. Trichiasis is often con- 
genital in dogs, although it may be acquired. The smaller 
breeds of dogs are most often affected (Pekinese and Japanese 
spaniels). It also occurs in the cat and bird. In the latter 
fine, small -feathers, which take the place of the eyelashes, 
are misdirected. 

Symptoms.— The principal symptoms are lacrimation, kera- 
titis, blepharospasm, and ulceration of the cornea. The eye 
must be examined by elevating the lids, and after cleansing 
with tepid water the lashes will be seen taking an abnormal 
direction. Extensive irritation and injury have been observed 
in such cases when they have been neglected. 

Prognosis.— Favorable, except when the complications lead 
to corneal ulcer, or panophthalmitis. 

Treatment.— Removal of the offending lashes is the first 
consideration. Their removal is effected by pulling them 
out with small tweezers or forceps. Temporary relief can 
also be obtained by cutting the lashes close to the margin 
of the lids. More permanent results will be obtained by 
performing the entropion operation. Any injury to the 
structures of the eye should be treated with antiseptics 
(boric acid 2 per cent, solution in distilled water). 

DISTRICHIASIS. 

Definition.— A condition in which there are two rows of 
eyelashes present on the margin of the lids. One row is 
usually normally directed while the other is misdirected 
against the eyeball. The smaller breeds of dogs are most 
often affected. The abnormal lashes grow out from the 
puncta or outlets of the Meibomian glands. 

The symptoms and treatment are the same as in trichiasis. 

ADHESIONS OF THE EYELIDS. 

A normal adhesion of the eyelids is found at birth, and 
continues for a period of twelve to fifteen days. x\t this 
period the eyelids open and assume their normal function 



ADHESIONS OF THE EYELIDS 505 

unless some abnormality is present. Adhesions form between 
the margins of 'the lids which may be partial or complete 
(ankyloblepharon), or between the eyelids and the eyeball, 
the margins of the lids being free (symblepharon). 

Ankyloblepharon.— In complete ankyloblepharon the pal- 
pebral fissure has entirely disappeared. An incomplete 
closure of the palpebral fissure is known as blepharophimosis. 
This condition, as a rule, is congenital, and is found in the 
dog and cat. It is diagnosed readily. A sufficient time should 
be allowed (ten to eighteen days) for the normal adhesions 
to disappear. Very often there will be found a small line or 
groove at the point where the opening should be. 

Treatment.— A small opening is made through the lid at 
the outer canthus, a grooved director inserted and the incision 
carried clear across to the inner canthus. The after-treatment 
consists in washing the eyes with a boric acid solution (2 per 
cent), and applying vaseline to the lid margins to prevent 
further adhesions. 

In blepharophimosis there is a narrowing of the palpebral 
fissure which makes the eye appear much smaller than normal. 
It is often associated with trichiasis or entropion. To correct 
it the palpebral opening should be enlarged at the external 
canthus, and the skin sutured back both on the upper and 
lower lids to prevent adhesions. This operation will also 
correct trichiasis or entropion if either should be present. 
Keep the wound clean and apply a mild ointment to the 
recently incised margins. 

Symblepharon.— This is an adhesion of the eyelids to the 
eyeball, and has been observed in dogs and cats. The 
majority of cases are congenital. Occasionally an acquired 
symblepharon is found due to adhesions following destruction 
of the conjunctival membrane during the course of distemper. 
An examination of the eye will at once reveal the condition. 
The lids cannot be e\erted and are found adherent to the 
eyeball. 

Treatment.— Separation of the lid from the eyeball is pos- 
si})le. The animal should be anesthetized. The lids are 
carefully separated so that the eyeball is left intact. The 
operation can be done satisfactorily with a fine pair of 



506 DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS 

scissors or a very small scalpel. After the operation is com- 
pleted all hemorrhage must be controlled and an antiseptic 
ointment applied under the lids. Yellow oxid of mercury 
ointment has proved satisfactory for this purpose. It should 
be applied daily. 

LAGOPHTHALMUS. 

Definition. — An incomplete closure of the eyelids in which 
a portion of the cornea is left exposed. When the cornea or 
conjunctiva is left continuously exposed to the air without 
the normal secretions covering them, they become irritated, 
inflamed and serious alterations take place. The membranes 
are thickened, the cornea opaque and dry, and may even 
become perforated. The tears follow the angle of the eyelids 
and flow down over the face. The condition is brought about 
in most cases by ectropion, exophthalmos, enlargement of the 
eyeball, and some few cases by paralysis of the orbicularis 
nerve. Wounds of the lids with extensive loss of substance 
may also produce it. 

Treatment.— The first indication is to remove the cause, 
if possible. If this cannot be done the only thing left is to 
protect the conjunctiva and cornea from dessication and 
eventual destruction. Oily solutions are best for this purpose. 
Instill them into the eye once or twice daily. 

TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS. 

Several varieties of tumors are found on the eyelids of 
small animals. 

Papillomata. — TFarf^.— These are not uncommon in dogs 
and birds. The wart-like excrescences found in birds, par- 
ticularly parrots, are usually tubercular, and are often asso- 
ciated with degenerations and abscess formation. In old 
dogs and cats, horn-like growths are found as outgrowths 
from the walls of Meibomian cysts. Small warts are also 
seen developing along the margin of the lid, or on the skin 
over the eyelid. During the course of epitheliosis of birds 
small horn-like growths appear on the lids. 

Treatment.— Small warts appearing on the margin of the 
lids, or skin, are removed with the scissors. Cauterize the 



TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS 507 

base of them with silver nitrate, and follow at once with salt 
solution to prevent undue caustic action and injury to the 
eye. Tubercular nodules and warts in parrots should be 
incised and removed as completely as possible. Conserve 
as much of the eyelid as possible. In epitheliosis the warts 
should be removed with the knife or curette and iodin applied. 
Warts projecting out from the Meibomian glands are opened 
and curetted with a small instrument. The base of the warts 
should be carefully cauterized. 

Chalazion. — Meibomian Oi/^l— These are small cystic 
growths, appearing on the free margin of the lid, or on the 
skin, standing out prominently. They are sebaceous cysts 
having no inflammatory reaction and filled, as a rule, w^th a 
thick honey-like material. A true chalazion is a retention 
of the secretions of the Meibomian glands. They are fre- 
quently observed in dogs, more commonly in mature animals. 
They form a firm, circumscribed swelling, gradually enlarg- 
ing until they reach the size of a pea or walnut. A differentia- 
tion is difficult to make as they resemble sebaceous cysts. 
Their development often leads to a horny-like excrescence 
on the surface, and often take on the character of a malignant 
growth. They may involve the free margin of the lid, or 
extend to the entire structure of the upper eyelid. 

Treatment.— Small sebaceous cysts are opened and the 
contents squeezed out. The opening is made large enough 
in order that the gland can be destroyed with iodin or silver 
nitrate. 

In true chalazion it is advisable to remove a small trian- 
gular portion of the lid, including the cyst, with the base of 
the triangle on the margin of the lid. This is best done, under 
morphin anesthesia, with the scissors. Approximate the 
wound thus made with fine silk or linen. Union is usually 
complete in ten days to two weeks. Curetting the enlarge- 
ment may be tried in cases where the operation is not possible. 

Pilosebaceous Cysts.— These are found on the upper eye- 
lid in dogs, especially bulldogs and pugs with wrinkled skin. 
The contents of the cysts are hair, sebum, and pus, which 
is usually discharged through a fistulous opening. 



508 DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS 

Treatment.— The cyst should be opened, curetted, and the 
cyst wall destroyed with tincture of iodin. 

Lipoma and Sebaceous Tumors in Birds.— These are fre- 
quently observed in the different species of birds. The 
tumors are well defined, of a firm consistency, and vary in 
size from a pea to a walnut. On opening the tumor fatty 
tissue may be seen, or which is more common, a yellowish, 
cheesy, tough material enclosed in a distinct capsule is present. 
They are situated immediately under the skin. From their 
nature they are either lipomas or sebaceous cysts. Various 
conditions are found. Sometimes the cysts will rupture, 
discharging the material, while in other cases horny growths 
will partially replace the cyst. Very often a number of birds 
in a flock will be affected. 

Treatment.— Incise the tumor, remove all the contents and 
apply tincture of iodin to its base. Free hemorrhage may 
occur after incision, which can be controlled by cauterizing 
with silver nitrate. 

Enlargement of the Glands of MoU.— These small glands 
are situated along the free margin of the eyelid, their ducts 
emptying into the glands of the hair follicles. They are 
enlarged commonly in older animals. The cysts are clear, 
transparent, and varying in size from a wheat grain and 
smaller. 

Treatment. — The contents 'of the cysts are discharged. 
This is best done by crushing the small cyst with an artery 
forceps. Iodin is then applied to destroy the gland and cvst 
wall. 

Granulomas.— Resulting from wounds, granulomatous 
tissue is often found developing on the free margin of the 
lids, or on the surface. This is easily determined by its 
general appearance. If there should be doubt a definite 
diagnosis may be made with the microscope. 

Treatment. — Complete extirpation is indicated. Cauterize 
the base of the tumefaction with silver nitrate, or actual 
cautery. 

Malignant Neoplasms.— Several varieties of malignant 
tumors have been found involving the eyelids of small animals. 



TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS 509 

Epitheliomata, sarcomata, carcinomata, and tuberculomata 
are the ones most, often observed. 

Diagnosis.— A diagnosis is made partly on the character 
of the growth and finally by microscopic examination. 

Treatment.— Complete excision of the tumor should be 
attempted as early as possible. When the entire eyelid is 
involved treatment is of very little value. A recurrence of 
the tumors is liable to occur after operation. In removing 
the tumor as much as possible of the eyelid should be saved. 



CHAPTER II. 

DISEASES OF THE CONJUNCTIVA. 

Examination.— Examination is simple in the dog, cat and 
bird. The animal should be held either by an assistant or 
restrained so as to facilitate the examination. Ordinary 
daylight or artificial light may be used. The lower lid can 
be pulled downward by placing the thumb on or near the 
palpebral margin, and the upper lid pushed upward with 
the index finger of the same hand in a similar position. This 
manipulation will expose nearly all of the membrane. The 
examination is made for inflammations, foreign bodies, cysts, 
tumors, and wounds of various kinds. Vicious animals 
should be restrained by taping the niouth or by general 
anesthesia. 

CONJUNCTIVITIS. 

Definition.— Inflammation of the conjunctiva. In small 
animals various types of inflammation are of frequent occur- 
rence. These animals are subjected to injuries which often 
involve the conjunctival membrane, and infectious diseases 
(distemper in dog and cat, epitheliosis in bird) which 
produce various forms of inflammation. The xerosis 
bacillus, Staphylococcus albus and S. aureus, strepto- 
coccus, diphtheria bacillus and others are more or less present 
in the eye leading in many cases to local infection and 
inflammation. 

It is noted further that the conjunctival membrane is 
very vascular, rich in lymph cells, and sensitive to outside 
influences, all of which tend to favor the development of 
inflammatory conditions. 

The following forms of conjunctivitis are recognized: 

(a) Catarrhal, (b) purulent, (c) parenchymatous, (d) 
croupous, (e) follicular, and (/) exanthematous. 



CONJUNCTIVITIS 511 

Catarrhal Conjunctivitis.— A form of inflammation of very 
frequent occurrence in all small animals. It is characterized 
by congestion, swelling, and a discharge which may be serous, 
mucous, or mucopurulent. 

Etiology.— Catarrhal conjunctivitis is often associated with 
or secondary to other diseases, such as eczema, distemper, 
epitheliosis, nasal catarrh, bronchitis and some constitutional 
diseases. 

Mechanical conjuncti^dtis often occurs in small animals 
from injuries of various kinds, foreign bodies, dirt or dust 
getting into contact with the membranes. Cold winds some- 
times produce it in hunting dogs. 

Irritating collyria instilled too often may produce it. Seri- 
ous disturbances are frequently observed from too strong 
solutions. 

Infection no doubt plays an important role in producing 
catarrhal conjunctivitis. The ordinary infection is con- 
stantly present and develops when the local resistance is 
reduced. 

Symptoms.— There is a distinct change in the color of the 
membrane and a mucous or mucopurulent discharge. The 
congestion of the membrane produces a pink or reddish 
coloration which may be accompanied by a slight yellow tinge 
due to interstitial infiltration. 

The secretion, at first serous, soon changes to mucous or 
mucopurulent and collects around the palpebral margin. 
The edges of the lids are found edematous. 

Some photophobia is present. The animal will show more 
or less constant movement of the lids, and holds the lids par- 
tially or completely closed. A careful examination reveals 
the true nature of the condition. 

Prognosis.— As a rule favorable except when secondary to 
infectious diseases. The inflammation usually subsides in a 
week or ten days. 

Treatment.— A careful examination should be made to 
determine whether any foreign substances are present which 
must be carefully removed. 

Wash the membranes thoroughly with boric acid (2 per 
cent.). This can be repeated two or three times daily during 



512 DISEASES OF THE CONJUNCTIVA 

the first few days. Follow each application of boric acid 
with an instillation of one of the following solutions: Zinc 
sulphate (l-l|'per cent.) ; tannic acid (1-2 per cent.) ; chinosol 
(1-500); protargol (2-4 per cent.); or if the condition is 
persistent solution of silver nitrate (0.5 per cent.). 

The animal should be isolated and the premises disinfected 
to avoid spreading the disease. 

Purulent Conjunctivitis. — Blennorrhea.— Acute Form.— 
Definition.— A purulent secretion present in one or both eyes. 
In this condition the discharge is more copious and the 
inflammation more intense than in catarrhal conjunctivitis. 
Purulent conjuncti\itis results yery frequently from or 
accompanies distemper of dogs and cats, and epitheliosis in 
fowls. It often occurs as an epizootic or enzootic in kittens 
and puppies. Both the acute and chronic forms of the 
disease are frequently met with in practice. 

Etiology.— The majority of cases can be determined quite 
definitely to be due to infection accompanying or following 
infectious diseases. It is very common in dog distemper, 
cat distemper, and epitheliosis in birds. Various kinds of 
organisms have been isolated from the discharge but none 
of them has been proved to be the specific cause. The 
fact that large numbers of puppies, kittens or fowls are 
affected, when closely associated, indicates the communicable 
character of the disease. It is possible to have this form of 
conjunctivitis follow the catarrhal, owing to the reduced 
resistance of the membrane which allows secondary infection 
to develop. It is, however, possible that many cases are 
produced in fowls and in some of the other animals by a 
parasite. Several species of parasites have been isolated 
from the conjunctival sac of birds. 

Xewly born animals contract the disease from the vaginal 
infection of the mother at the time of parturition. 

Symptoms.— The conjunctival membrane is of an intense 
red color and more or less uniform over its entire surface. 
The degree of redness depends upon the severity of the 
infection and the stage of development. In many cases the 
mucous membrane is prominent from the edematous swelling 
resulting from the irritation, thus giving it a "pouching out" 



CONJUNCTIVITIS 513 

appearance. The amount of pus present is more or less 
characteristic. The eye is often entirely filled with a thick, 
whitish, glutinous pus, which becomes dried around the 
palpebral borders and forms crusts frequenth^ agglutinating 
the eyelids. On account of the spread of the infection to the 
cornea, this organ becomes cloudy or even ulcerated. Owing 
to the irritant action of the pus the animal will show con- 
siderable pain, scratch and rub the eyes either with the paws 
or against objects. The membrana nictitans is red and 
protrudes over a portion of the eyeball. Most cases show 
considerable photophobia. 

6'e??gra/.— General symptoms are noted in many cases in 
the form of dulness, loss of appetite and general weakness. 
There may be sufficient infection to produce general intoxica- 
tion and death in birds. In these cases, however, it is quite 
likely that the infection is found in other parts of the body. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is not always favorable. Due 
to complications, which may involve the eyeball, partial or 
total blindness can result. \Vhile many cases terminate in 
complete resolution, others produce ulcerations and perfora- 
tions of the cornea. When the latter occurs panophthalmitis 
is the result. In some animals, particularly birds, this would 
seriously interfere with the obtaining of food. When para- 
sites are the cause of the condition other complications 
follow, such as infestation of the nasal passages and sinuses, 
and in some cases invasion of the air sacs. 

Treatment.— Thorough disinfection of the premises, houses, 
etc., should be practised in order to prevent the spread of the 
infection. This can be accomplished either by the use of 
liquor cresolis compositus (3 per cent.) with which all places 
and articles in contact with the animals are thoroughly 
saturated, or the animals are removed from the house or 
kennel which is then disinfected with formaldehyd fumes. 

The general condition of the patient nnist be considered 
and its strength maintained by good, nourishing food and 
such tonics as tincture of gentian, or tincture of nux vomica 
.(0.2-0.4 twice daily). A solution of iron sulphate (2 per 
cent.) in the ch'inking water has ])r()\'(Ml of vahie as a tonic 
for birds. 
3:^ 



514 DISEASES OF THE CONJUNCTIVA 

Local treatment is applied at least twice daily in order to 
remove the irritating material from the conjunctival sac, 
and also to destroy infection. Many preparations have been 
recommended and used for this purpose: Boric acid (2 per 
cent.); creolin (2 per cent.); chinosol (1-500); protargol 
(2-3 per cent.) ; or in severe cases silver nitrate (0.5 per cent.). 
This treatment must be continued for one to two weeks to 
obtain the best results. 

Chronic Form.— This form of the disease has been observed 
very frequently in dogs and cats following infectious and 
contagious diseases. To recognize it as being separate from 
the acute form is necessary on account of its persistent and 
long course. It is very common in old animals and those 
kept under bad hygienic conditions. Many cases of eczema 
and mange are associated with chronic purulent conjuncti- 
vitis. It may follow the acute form. 

Symptoms.— The condition of the conjunctiva and the 
presence of pus with agglutination of the palpebral margins 
present the appearance in general of the acute form. On 
examination the conjunctiva is found to be dull red in color, 
slightly edematous and the cornea frequently has numerous 
small bloodvessels over its surface. The general condition 
of the patient is usually bad. 

Prognosis.— Chs'ing to the chronic nature of the disease and 
its persistency the prognosis is not favorable. The disease 
may last for months or even the entire life of the animal. 

Treatment.— One of the first essentials in the treatment 
of this disease is to secure good sanitary conditions, giv- 
ing plenty of nourishing food and do everything possible 
to increase the strength of the patient. The various anti- 
septic solutions recommended for the acute form may also 
be tried. 

Good results have followed in some chronic cases by pre- 
paring an autogenic vaccine and administering 1 to 2 c.c. 
subcutaneously every three to five days. This in con- 
junction with the above treatment has proved to be of 
considerable value. 

Parenchymatous Conjmictivitis. — Erysipelatous Conjuncti- 
vitis.— DefimtioTi.— An inflammation of the deeper laj^ers of 



CONJUNCTIVITIS 515 

the conjunctiva and its submucous tissue. It occurs in all 
small animals, most frequently in birds. 

Etiology. —There are many factors producing parenchy- 
matous conjunctivitis. Many of them are the same as those 
causing the catarrhal form. Injuries to the mucous mem- 
branes and underlying structures can produce it. Chronic 
agents in the form of irritants, such as irritating collyria, 
when used too often or in too large quantities ; thermic agents 
in the form of hot water or hot antiseptic solutions. The 
disease is observed in hunting dogs from exposure, or to 
foreign bodies getting into the eyes while going through 
briers and brush. Infection plays an important role in the 
production of this form of conjunctivitis. The infection is 
often introduced directly into the conjunctival sac where it 
enters small wounds and produces intense inflammation of 
the parenchyma. Numerous organisms have been isolated 
in -these cases. It is evident that no one specific organism 
produces it. The disease may also develop secondarily 
(hematogenously) to some of the infectious diseases. It is a 
common sequel to dog distemper or epitheliosis of fowls. 

Symptoms.— The early indications of the disease are 
swelling and puffiness of the mucous membrane. This is so 
marked in many cases that the swollen conjunctiva pouches 
outward over the palpebral borders or the cornea. During 
this stage the conjunctiva is intensely congested and 
reddened. There is considerable lacrimation and photo- 
phobia during the entire period of the disease. In the second 
stage there is a purulent discharge from the eye, which may 
be very copious. The general condition of the patient is 
usually not disturbed unless complications develop, or from 
the attending infectious diseases. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis in most primary cases is favor- 
able. In the acute form it subsides in a week or ten days. 
When secondary to infectious diseases, the prognosis is not 
so favorable. In such instances it may develop into a chronic 
purulent conjunctivitis. 

Treatment.— Prompt treatment is important in preventing 
the spread of the inflammation. Antiseptic and astringent 
solutions shoukl be employed: I3oric acid (2 per cent.); 



516 DISEASES OF THE CONJUNCTIVA 

lead water (2 per cent.) ; potassium permanganate (J per 
cent.); tincture opium (1 per cent.). If the patient shows 
considerable pain and irritation with marked congestion of 
the membrane, codrenin solution (2 per cent.), or a few drops 
of stovain solution (2 per cent.) are recommended. When 
intense pain is present and the conjunctiva is a dull, red color 
indicating a subacute inflammation, silver nitrate (0.5 per 
cent.) is of value. 

|l Croupous Conjunctivitis.— Definition.— An inflammation of 

the conjunctiva characterized by the formation of a pseudo- 
membrane which covers its surface. Croupous conjunctivitis 

f is observed more commonly in the dog and cat. In birds it 

accompanies epitheliosis, when the eyes are involved. 

Etiology.— The majority of cases occurring in the dog and 
cat are produced either by chemical irritation or as a result 
of specific infection following or accompanying infectious 
diseases. In birds, owing to the prevalency of epitheliosis, 
large numbers in an individual flock may be affected at the 

J, same time. 

i Symptoms.— The conjunctiva is covered with a fibrinous 

exudate which frequently extends over the cornea. The 
corneal surface may be entirely covered. In birds a very 
heavy, thick, fibrinous membrane completely covers the 
entire anterior surface of the eye. Due to exudate and 
secretions collecting under the pseud omembrane, it is forced 
outwardly protruding between the lids. If the membrane 
is removed, the eye will be found normal in position and color. 
There are no general symptoms except as produced by some 
infectious diseases which the conjunctivitis attends. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in primary cases. When secondary 
the prognosis depends upon the primary disease it accom- 
panies. 

Treatment.- The animal's general condition should be 
observed and any necessary treatment applied. The eye 
may be flushed out with a warm boric acid solution and the 
croupous membrane removed with a pledget of cotton or a 
pincette. After the membrane is removed, apply antiseptic 
or astringent collyria. It will probably be necessary to re- 
njoA'e fragments of membrane as they later develop. 



CONJUNCTIVITIS 517 

Follicular Conjunctivitis.— Definition.— An inflammation of 
the conjunctiva characterized by the formation of small, 
granular elevations over its surface. These granulations are 
due to swelling of the lymph follicles and to connective 
tissue proliferation, the result of inflammation. The granu- 
lations often attain the size of a grain of millet or larger. 
Follicular conjunctivitis occurs usually on the inner surface 
of the membrana nictitans. In a large number of dogs 
examined, nearly one-half were found to be affected with 
this disease. House dogs seem more susceptible than others. 

Etiology.— The cause is unknown. Many etiological 
factors have been accused, such as dirt, dust and other 
irritants which enter the eye. Undoubtedly many cases 
result from distemper. 

Symptoms.— As such a large number of dogs are affected 
with enlarged lymph follicles on the membrana nictitans one 
is led to conclude that their presence may not be abnormal. 
However, in many cases the granules appear also over the 
entire conjunctiva leading often to ectropion, an outward 
rolling of the eyelids. On examination the mucous mem- 
brane will be found to be of a dull red color and irregular on 
the surface. Small, white granules at their apices stand out 
quite prominently over the membrane. The membrana 
nictitans, when elevated with the forceps, will disclose small 
elevations on its under surface. In case of long standing the 
palpebral margins become red and the small glands prominent. 
There is some lacrimation and frequently a discharge of pus 
from the inner can thus. During the later stage small ulcers 
appear on the apices of the granulations, which, by confluence, 
form large, ulcerated surfaces. The eyes, kept partly closed 
and rubbed with the paws, show evidence of irritation and 
pain. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is not very favorable because 
the disease is usually well developed before the animal shows 
any marked symptoms. Owing to the chronic character of 
the disease the course is protracted requiring long continued 
treatment. 

Treatment.— A thorough examination should be made of 
the entire conjunctiva in order to determine the extent of 



518 DISEASES OF THE CONJUNCTIVA 

the disease. The ordinary collyria, such as zinc sulphate 
(1 per cent.) ; silver nitrate (0.5 per cent.), or chinosol (1-500), 
should be used for a few days to remove all of the surface 
infection and astringe the membrane. Following this treat- 
ment the affected parts of the conjunctiva are cauterized 
with silver nitrate. Apply immediately a solution of sodium 
chlorid to prevent injury to the cornea. This operation 
may be repeated in a few days, if necessary. In the mean- 
time the astringent and antiseptic solutions are to be con- 
tinued. 

It is advisable to remove the membrana nictitans when it 
shows the pronounced follicular granulations. This is best 
done in the foUomng manner: The animal may be given 
a general anesthetic, or anesthetize the membrane locally 
by instilling 0.8-1.5 of codrenin solution in the affected 
eye. If the latter is used the operation should be delayed for 
ten or fifteen minutes for complete anesthesia. The animal 
is placed on the operating table, held by an assistant, the 
membrana nictitans grasped with a small forceps and pulled 
outwardly toward the inner canthus of the eye. It is then 
cut off carefully with a curved scissors. Care must be taken 
to prevent removal of any of the other conjunctival mem- 
brane, as this would lead to scar formation and result in 
entropion. Serious hemorrhage may occur in indi\ddual 
cases. If the hemorrhage is copious a gauze pack should be 
placed over the eye and held in place by a head bandage. 
This may be removed in twenty-four hours and the ordinary 
antiseptic solutions used. Recovery from the operation 
requires ten days to two weeks. 

Exanthematous Conjunctivitis.— Definition.— An exanthe- 
matous eruption occurring during the course of certain 
diseases. In small animals this form of conjuncti\dtis is not 
very common, but has been observed accompanying or 
following distemper in the dog and cat. Parasitic skin 
diseases and eczemas often extend to the conjunctiva from 
the skin around the palpebral margins. This frequently 
results in suppurative inflammation of the glands along the 
margin of the lids, and in the membrana nictitans. !Many 
cases of favus in fowls extend to the conjunctiva. 



TRAUMATIC LESIONS OF THE CONJUNCTIVA 519 

Treatment.— The treatment of exanthematous conjuncti- 
vitis is very similar to that of the catarrhal form and its 
varieties. The original disease must be treated, and anti- 
septic and astringent solutions applied to the affected con- 
junctiva. When there is severe lacrimation, calomel has 
proved to be of considerable value. 

PTERYGIUM. 

Definition.— A triangular fold of the conjunctiva and sub- 
conjunctival tissue extending over a part of the cornea. It 
is derived from the bulbar conjunctiva and narrows to a 
point as it extends over the corneal membrane. 

Symptoms.— Pterygium develops gradually and does not 
produce any marked irritation except a slight catarrhal 
inflammation. When it extends over on the cornea it may 
affect vision. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is not difficult. The triangular 
growth, attached more or less firmly to the cornea, rich in 
bloodvessels, which gives it a pink or reddish cast, charac- 
terizes it. 

Prognosis.— Pterygium is not very serious and can usually 
be operated successfully. 

Treatment.— It is advisable to treat the mucous membrane 
for a few days previous to the operation with antiseptic and 
astringent solutions. A local anesthetic should be adminis- 
tered, or if the animal is nervous, general anesthesia would 
be preferable. Dissect off the triangular fold of membrane 
from the cornea and remove it as near the base as possible 
with the scissors. It is further recommended that the base 
of the growth be dissected out completely and the wound 
sutured. The after-treatment consists in the use of antiseptic 
and astringent solutions. Recovery is usually prompt, and, 
if the operation has been thorough, the growth does not 
return. 

TRAUMATIC LESIONS OF THE CONJUNCTIVA. 

Foreign Bodies in the Conjunctiva. —Various kinds of sub- 
stances are found in the conjunctival sac of small animals. 



520 DISEASES OF THE CONJUNCTIVA 

Dirt, straws, briars, wheat seeds, splinters of wood, etc., have 
been observed quite commonly. This is particularly true 
in hunting dogs, and animals that are kept in dusty and 
unsanitary kennels. In birds, parasites have been found in 
a number of cases (spiroptera) . These substances are fre- 
quently found underneath the membrana nictitans. 

Symptoms.— All foreign bodies cause more or less intense 
reactive S}Tnptoms, such as lacrimation, photophobia, serous 
or mucopurulent discharge, swelling of the eyelids, opaque- 
ness of the cornea, etc. The severity of the symptoms will 
depend somewhat upon the character of the foreign body and 
the degree of irritation. The patient usually shows con- 
siderable pain, rubs the eyes against objects or with the paws, 
and thus intensifies the symptoms. 

A sudden development of the symptoms cited should lead 
one to suspect a foreign body in the eye. 

Treatment.— Flush out the conjunctival sac with warm 
water or boric acid solution (2 per cent.). Raise the mem- 
brana nictitans and evert the lids so that a close inspection 
of the entire conjunctival sac can be made. In the majority 
of cases the foreign body is visible. A reading glass will 
facilitate finding small foreign bodies. 

After the foreign body is located it is advisable to remove 
it either by flushing the surface with a boric acid solution 
(2 per cent.) or by grasping it with a small forceps, or wiping 
it out with a pledget of cotton. Considerable care should be 
exercised to see that all of the foreign material is removed. 
After removal flush the mucous membrane two or three times 
daily with boric acid solution (2 per cent.). 

Wounds on the Conjunctiva. —Very often the conjunctiva 
is injured by sticks, pieces of straw, briers, etc. In the 
majority of cases the injury is slight and of little significance. 
In a few cases, where the lesion is extensive, there will be 
symptoms similar to those caused by foreign bodies in the 
conjunctival sac. A differentiation is made only by a careful 
examination. 

Treatment.— The lids should be everted and the part 
thoroughly examined to determine the extent of the injury. 



ULCERATION OF THE CONJUNCTIVA 521 

If any shreds of membrane are present, they should be 
removed with the scissors. Antiseptic and astringent coUyria 
are used until the symptoms subside. 

CORROSIONS AND BURNS OF THE CONJUNCTIVA. 

These occur rather commonly in dogs and cats the result 
of accident or intent. They may also be due to the use of 
strong colly ria. A common practice, when dogs are fighting, 
is to separate them by throwing ammonia, pepper, or other 
irritant substances into their eyes. This often results in a 
serious inflammation of the conjunctiva and cornea. Thermic 
agents, such as hot water, also produce extensive injury. 

Treatment.— A careful history of the case should be 
obtained if possible in order to determine the cause of the 
injury. It would be best to first flush out the eyes with a 
warm boric acid solution (2 per cent.), and if the injury is 
produced by strong alkalies, follow with some soothing, 
Ijibricating agent, such as warm milk, or a dilute glycerin 
solution. Oleaginous preparations are also to be recom- 
mended. Ophthalmic ointments are useful. If the cauter- 
ization has produced an opacity of the cornea, of great value 
is a solution of supcus cineraria maritima compositus (50 
per cent.) used daily. 

ULCERATION OF THE CONJUNCTIVA. 

A more or less extensive ulceration of the conjunctival 
membrane occurs following diseases or injuries. It has been 
observed following burns and corrosions; in birds, tuberculosis 
produces it. 

Treatment.— When ulceration of the ccmjunctiva occurs, 
the part should be thoroughly cleaned, curetted, and the 
base of the ulcer cauterized with silver nitrate followed by 
salt solution. This treatment may be repeated in a few days, 
if necessary. The conjunctival sac should be washed daily 
with boric acid (2 per cent.) to prevent infection and injury 
to other parts of the eye. 



522 DISEASES OF THE CONJUNCTIVA 

TUMORS AND GROWTHS ON THE CONJUNCTIVA. 

In small animals, tumors involving the conjunctiva and 
the membrana nictitans are of frequent occurrence. Several 
varieties of tumors have been observed. The principal ones 
are : Epitheliomas, sarcomas, tubercular nodules, dermoids, 
adenomas of the glands of Harder, papillomas, fibromas and 
lipomas. It is very essential that a differential diagnosis 
be made in order to distinguish the malignant from the non- 
malignant varieties. Malignant growths will not only invade 
the conjunctiva but spread rapidly to the adjacent tissue, and 
eventually cause the destruction of the entire eyeball. 

Treatment.— All enlargements along the margin of the lids, 
on the conjunctiva or on the membrana nictitans should be 
removed completely as early as possible. This operation is 
best accomplished under general anesthesia. The after- 
treatment would consist in cauterizing the wound and the 
application of the ordinary antiseptics. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANA NICTITANS. 

Examination. —An examination of the membrana nictitans 
is very easily accomplished in small animals by ordinary 
daylight. Proper restraint of the animal is necessary for a 
careful and thorough inspection. If the animal is of a nerv- 
ous temperament, or inclined to be ^dcious, a general anes- 
thetic should be administered, or the patient hoppled and a 
I tape applied around the mouth. The lids are then everted 

or held open with the thumb and finger while with the other 
hand the membrana nictitans can be grasped with a forceps 
and elevated so that all parts of it can be examined. Exami- 
nation should be made for inflammation, granular enlarge- 
ments, tumors, and injuries. 

As the mucous membrane of the membrana nictitans is 
exposed to the same causes of disease as the rest of the 
conjunctiva, it frequently shows lesions. 

Symptoms.— Inflammation of the membrana nictitans is 
characterized by a red, more or less flat enlargement appear- 
ing at the inner palpebral fissure. In severe cases the 



TUMORS OF THE MEMBRANA NICTITANS 523 

membrane stands out prominently and extends over a portion 
of the cornea. A protrusion of the membrana nictitans is 
observed in tetanus, which should not be mistaken for an 
inflammatory condition. This can easily be distinguished 
by other s\Tnptoms of tetanus appearing in other parts of the 
body. 

Prognosis.— Favorable in most cases. It may terminate 
in a chronic inflammation in which case the membrana 
nictitans will remain permanently thickened. 

Treatment.— The entire membrane should be inspected 
closely for foreign bodies. Flush out the membrane daily 
with boric acid solution (2 per cent.). 

If in the course of two or three weeks the swelling has not 
subsided, it would indicate a chronic inflammation. In this 
case the removal of the entire membrane is recommended. 

WOUNDS OF THE MEMBRANA NICTITANS. 

In small animals wounds of the membrana nictitans are 
produced by the same causes as those producing traumatic 
conjunctivitis elsewhere. As a rule they are of little impor- 
tance unless very extensive or followed by marked granula- 
tion. Antiseptic and astringent solutions usually suffice to heal 
them. If extensive granulation occur, it may be necessary 
to extirpate the entire membrane. 

TUMORS ON THE MEMBRANA NICTITANS. 

Various tumors have been found on the membrana nicti- 
tans. It is advisable in all cases to remove the membrane 
surgically. 



CHAPTER III. 
DISEASES OF THE LACRIMAL APPARATUS. 

Examination.— This apparatus consists of the lacrimal 
gland and the lacrimal passages. In small animals it is 
somewhat difficult to make an examination of the entire 
apparatus. The lacrimal gland in the dog is flat, light pink 
in color, of a mixed type and is situated in the periorbit 
directly under the orbital ligament. In the cat the position 
is very similar. In birds the gland is a small, round, reddish 
body against the eyeball near the outer canthus and opens 
upon the wall of the eyelid through a small slit. 

The lacrimal openings (puncta lacrimalia) are elliptical 
fissures and are two in number in the dog and one in the bird. 
The lacrimal canal extends from the lacrimal gland to an 
opening in the lower border of the nasal canal. This is a 
whitish, membranous tube to conduct the excessive secretion 
into the nasal passages. The entire lacrimal apparatus is of 
lesser importance in small animals than in horses. 

LACRIMATION. 

Epiphora. 

Definition.— A term applied to designate a flow of tears 
over the lid margins. It is not of common occurrence in 
small animals, except in certain breeds of dogs. 

Etiology. — (a) Very often due to ectropion or entropion, 
which may produce a deviation of the puncta lacrimalia, 
allowing the secretion to flow out over the margin of the lids. 
{h) Obstruction of the lacrimal duct by foreign substances, 
mucus, etc. (c) Constriction and obliteration of the duct 
due to injuries, etc. {d) Lacrimation is often seen as a result 
of irritation or diseases affecting the conjunctival membranes. 
In this case the secretion forms so rapidly that the lacrimal 
duct cannot carry it away, the excess flowing over the lid 
margins, {e) Ordinary lacrimation ma}' be produced by 
exposure to irritating gases, smoke, dust or cold air. 



DACRYOCYSTITIS 525 

Symptoms.— A copious tear flow over the lid margin. An 
examination of the surroundings of the patient should be 
made, and also a close inspection of the conjunctiva and 
lacrimal apparatus, to determine if possible the cause ,of the 
condition. In certain breeds of dogs (spaniels, poodles, 
Boston terriers) it should not be looked upon as anything 
serious. 

Prognosis.— As soon as the causes are removed most cases 
recover promptly. In case the lacrimal passages are 
obstructed, the prognosis would be unfavorable. 

Treatment.— If possible remove the cause of the condition. 
If in the lacrimal passages, they should be opened by injecting 
a warm solution of boric acid (2 per cent.) or sodium bicar- 
bonate (1 per cent.) with a fine nozzled syringe. As the duct 
is often very small the operation is not always successful. 

DACRYOCYSTITIS. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the lacrimal sac. It is 
quite common in dogs and cats. 

Symptoms.— The first symptom is a swelling or bulging in 
the neighborhood of the inner canthus of the eye. When 
pressed with the finger the contents are forced out through 
the puncta lacrimalia. The discharge may be serous, mucoid, 
or purulent, depending upon the age of the condition. The 
case often develops suddenly, the skin over the swelling 
becoming shiny and red. It often perforates and through 
the opening blood-tinged pus is discharged. Later the 
discharge becomes mucoid or serous. A lacrimal fistula 
frequently results from the continuous tear flow through the 
abscess opening. Dacryocystitis usually becomes chronic. 

Prognosis.— On account of its chronicity and the develop- 
ment of fistula the prognosis is not very fa\'orable. As a 
rule several weeks are required to bring about complete 
recovery. 

Treatment. — In (hicryocystitis, hicrimal catarrh and fistula 
thorough irrigation with warm antiseptic solutions is 
indicated. Apply with a syringe with a fine long nozzle. 
If the fistula persists, open the canaliculus and lacrimal sac 
by slitting and treat as an ()j)en wound. 



CHAPTER IV. 

DISEASES OF THE CORNEA. 

Examination. — The cornea is normally transparent forming 
the anterior covering of the eyeball. It is shaped somewhat 
like a watch-crystal and in the dog, cat and bird spherical in 
form. The surface is smooth and shiny. In examining the 
cornea employ either daylight or artificial light. The animal 
may be restrained with an anesthetic or hoppled and tape 
applied around the mouth. By everting the eyelids with 
the thumb and index finger the entire cornea is exposed. Its 
form should be noted, its curvature and its transparency. 
The curvature of the cornea of one eye should be compared 
with that of the other. Of assistance in this regard is a 
lighted candle. By noting the size of the flame as reflected 
by the cornea of each eye, comparisons may be made. If 
the curvature is weak, the flame appears larger; if strong, 
smaller. In dogs and cats physiological variations will be 
noted in the curvature of each cornea due to the difference 
in the shape and size of the eyes. The surface of the cornea 
should be smooth and even. To determine these observe it 
from the side, best using reflected light. The cornea should 
be tested for sensitiveness by gently touching it. It is 
normally very sensitive. In ulceration and when inflamed 
sensitiveness is increased; it is reduced in glaucoma. Further 
examination is made for cuts, scratches, foreign bodies, etc. 

KERATITIS. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the cornea. Two t}'pes 
are recognized: 1. Non-suppurative, and 2, suppurative 
keratitis. Under the former are included the following 
forms: (a) Superficial, (6) vascular (pannus), (c) keratitis 
pigmentosa, {d) keratitis punctata superficialis, {e) parenchy- 



KERATITIS 527 

matous, (/) keratitis punctata profunda. Under the latter 
are included : (a) Ulceration of the cornea, (b) abscess of the 
cornea, (c) keratitis neuroparalytica, and (d) keratitis from 
lagophthalmus. 

Non-suppurative Keratitis. 

Superficial Keratitis.— Definition.— An inflammation of the 
cornea which involves the epithelial layer and the superficial 
layers of the parenchyma. It is very commonly due to acci- 
dents, injuries, and infections. 

Etiology.— Superficial keratitis may result from (a) a spread 
of infection from the palpebral or scleral conjunctiva, (b) 
Wounds on the cornea, (c) Foreign bodies, (d) Chemical 
irritants, such as too strong silver preparations, antisep- 
tics, etc. The common practice among the laity of using 
alum, ammonia, powdered glass in turbidity of the cornea 
obviously often injures it. (e) Spreading of inflammation 
from adjacent structures, such as the iris and ciliary bodies. 
(/) Superficial keratitis is often observed to accompany dog 
distempter and epitheliosis of fowls. 

Symptoms.— Lacrimation and photophobia are early and 
prominent symptoms. Clouding of the cornea in the form of 
a bluish-white film is seen which may be localized or general. 
An epithelial desquamation is often produced on the surface 
of the. corneal infiltration. This is so slight in many cases 
that it is not recognized. The symptoms usually disappear 
completely in a week or ten days. 

Course.— The course is usually about two weeks. 

Prognosis.— Favorable unless complications develop. 

Treatment.- A careful examination should be made of all 
parts of the eyelids and cornea to determine the conditions 
accurately. Flush the cornea and conjunctiva with boric 
acid solution (2 per cent.), or chinosol (1-2000 in distilled 
water). If considerable pain and photophobia are present 
a cocain and atropin solution (1-150) is recommended. A 
solution of succus cineraria maritima compositus (50 per 
cent.) has given most excellent results. Should the condition 
indicate chronicity, and no ulceration be present, a mild 



528 DISEASES OF THE CORNEA 

solution of silver nitrate will be found useful to change the 
type of inflammation and to act as an antiseptic and astrin- 
gent. Daily examination and treatment must be carried out 
until the opacity disappears. 

Vascular Keratitis. — Pa/??zz/^.— Definition.— The formation 
of new vascular tissue extending over the cornea just under- 
neath the epithelial covering. Pannus is not frequent in 
small animals; it is seen occasionally in dogs. 

Etiology.— Pannus occurs in most instances from irritation 
of a severe form extending over a long period of time. In 
dogs it commonly results from chemical irritation, when 
strong chemical agents, such as alum, mercury, etc., are used 
in treating opacities and chronic conjunctivitis. It may be 
due to trichiasis or districhiasis, and is also a sequel to chronic 
conjunctivitis, or may occur during the course of dog dis- 
temper. 

Symptoms.— Pannus usually begins with photophobia and 
lacrimation. This is soon followed by a gray or white 
opacity, traA'ersed by numerous bloodvessels which can be 
easily seen extending over the cornea in the form of reddish, 
radiating lines. Later, when the cause is removed, the new 
tissue becomes organized and appears as a white opacity of 
varying density. 

Prognosis.— Complete recovery is difficult to attain in all 
cases. The prognosis should be guarded as complications 
may follow. 

Treatment.— A careful history of the case should be 
obtained in order to determine the cause, which should be 
removed, if possible. If opacity is present a solution of 
succus cineraria maritima compositus (50 per cent.) is recom- 
mended, using a few drops once or twice daily. Some of the 
various ophthalmic ointments might also be tried. Operative 
procedure is recommended in case the ordinary treatment 
fails. The pannus may be removed by first giving the 
patient a general or local anesthetic, dilating the lids with an 
eye speculum, and carefully curetting the surface with a 
rather dull curette. Care must be taken to prevent curetting 
too deep. After operating apply antiseptics, and in severe 
cases cover the eye with sterile gauze held in place by a head 
bandage. Daily dressing is recommended. 



KERATITIS 529 

Keratitis Pigmentosa. — Pigmentary Keratitis.— Be^idtion. 
—A chronic disease of the cornea, either inflammatory or 
degenerative, with which is associated pigment deposit. 
It has been observed quite often in certain breeds of dogs 
and cats. The poodle, smah house spaniel, and other house 
dogs are the most common sufferers. 

Etiology.— In most cases pigmentary keratitis is secondary 
to ulceration of the cornea, other forms of keratitis and 
corneal opacities. It may occur as a primary condition in 
dogs having marked pigment deposits along the corneal 
limbus. In these cases it affects usually only a portion of the 
cornea, but may extend gradually to other portions. Occa- 
sionally the pigmentation may be deposited around the 
scleral corneal zone, extending toward the center of the 
cornea. The causes of the primary form are unknown. 

Symptoms.— Pigmentary keratitis is characterized by 
deposits of melanin or pigment in the cornea. It usually 
begins as a fine, triangular network of small, dark lines 
radiating from the limbus, the base of the formation being 
at the limbus and the apex directed toward the center of the 
cornea. The triangular pigment formation is often so dense 
that the part of the cornea traversed by it is almost black. 
Sometimes the pigmentation disappears to reappear later. 
Continued recurrences eventually leave the cornea dull and 
uneven on its surface. Lacrimation and photophobia are 
little marked. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable. As a rule 
following frequent recurrences permanent opacity of the 
cornea results. 

Treatment.— Boric acid (2 per cent.), or ichthyol (2 per 
cent.) is recommended. Pain may be arrested by stovain 
(2 per cent.), or alypin (2 per cent.), combined with the 
antiseptics. Internally potassium iodid (0.012-0.12) once 
daily, or atoxyl in small doses has been used with apparent 
success. The patient should be fed liberally and given good 
care. 

Keratitis Punctata Superficialis. — Facetted Keratitis.— 

Definition. —A chronic inflammation of the superficial layer 

of the cornea causing opacity and the appearance of small 
34 



530 DISEASES OF THE CORNEA 

facets occurring singly or multiple. This disease has been 
observed quite often in certain breeds of dogs but is very 
rare in cats and birds. 

Etiology.— Nothing definite is known in regard to its 
etiology. Dogs with prominent eyes are often affected. 
It has been observed to accompany or follow rheumatic 
affections. It may be due to injuries, infections, specific or 
general, or exposure. 

Symptoms.— Cloudiness of the cornea is the earliest symp- 
tom. This is followed soon by small, opaque, white, gray 
or yellow spots which penetrate into the parenchyma of the 
cornea. Ulceration of one or more turbid areas may take 
place causing small facets to appear. Injection of the 
conjunctiva and scleral membranes is a prominent symptom 
which may gradually disappear as the case becomes chronic. 
Lacrimation and photophobia are frequentlj^ seen. Owing 
to the disturbance of the cornea it will have a shagreened 
appearance. 

Prognosis and Course.— The course of the disease is chronic. 
The symptoms may almost completely disappear only to 
recur. Some cases show a tendency to become periodic. 
The prognosis, therefore, should not be made too favorable. 

Treatment.— Flush the cornea with boric acid (2 per cent.), 
chinosol (1-500), or silver nitrate solution (| per cent.). 
This should be followed immediately with a few drops of a 
solution of succus cineraria maritima compositus (50 per 
cent.). This treatment should be continued for several days 
or weeks to obtain the best results. Some of the ophthalmic 
ointments may be tried in obstinate cases. 

Parenchymatous Keratitis. —Definition. —An inflamma tion 
of the parenchyma of the cornea, characterized by a diffuse 
infiltration of the interstitial tissue with a vascularization 
of the sclera. It is accompanied in most cases by irido- 
cyclitis. Parenchymatous keratitis is a very common 
affection in dogs but rare in cats and birds. 

Etiology.— Infection is an important factor. In dogs it 
follows or accompanies distemper. It may be due to a 
spread of inflammation from the iris (iritis), choroid (choroid- 
itis), etc. Chronic eczema, mange, etc., when they affect the 



KERATITIS 531 

eyelids, ear, or adjacent parts, may be attended by it. Direct 
injury to the cornea may be a cause. 

Symptoms.— The cornea becomes turbid, gray or yellow. 
The normal transparency is lost. The turbidity may not 
extend over the entire cornea. Very often a dulness of the 
cornea is all that is noticed during the early stages of the 
disease. • 

When the cornea is closely examined there will be found 
small elevations over the epithelial layer, and a network of 
fine bloodvessels radiating more or less evenly from the 
periphery to the center. The bloodvessels are often so small 
that a reading glass is necessary in order to see them. They 
run parallel to each other and usually do not anastomose 
but terminate in a small loop forming a zone entirely around 
the corneal limbus. These new formed vessels become quite 
extensive and involve the entire cornea. Lacrimation, 
photophobia, pain, and congestion of the sclera are present. 
When examined with an ophthalmoscope there will be evi- 
dence of iritis and choroiditis. 

Course.— The course is usually several days to a few weeks. 
Abscess or ulceration of the cornea is a rare sequel. 

Prognosis.— Owing to the changes that have taken place 
in the cornea, it requires quite a long time to bring about 
healing. The tendency to recur makes the prognosis rather 
unfavorable. Permanent turbidity of the cornea may result 
with partial or complete loss of sight. 

Treatment.— During the early stages of the disease the 
patient should be protected from strong light and everything 
possible done to prevent irritation of the cornea. 

Constriction of the vessels and reduction of the irritation 
are best brought about by applying to the cornea three or 
four times daily codrenin solution (4 per cent.). This is 
continued for two or three days. When there is evidence 
of iritis or choroiditis atropin solution (J per cent.) is of value 
to prevent adhesions (posterior synechia). 

If pus is present a mild, non-irritating antiseptic should be 
used. Recommended are boric acid (2 per cent.), biniodid 
of mercury (1-10,000). Codrenin solution may be added to 
the above to constrict the bloodvessels and control the pain. 



532 DISEASES OF THE CORNEA 

When the condition becomes chronic silver preparations are 
useful. An autogenic vaccine has been used with good 
results and may be given every four or five days. 

Give the patient plenty of good, nourishing food, occasional 
laxatives, and small dailv doses of potassium iodid (0.016- 
0.032). 

Keratitis Punctata Profunda.— Definition.— An inflamma- 
tion of the deeper layer of the cornea appearing in the form 
of multiple, small spots. It is more common in the horse and 
dog than in other animals. 

Etiology.— The cause has not been determined. It may be 
produced by specific infection and inflammation spreading 
from adjacent parts. 

Symptoms.— Numerous small opacities or spots are noted 
in the depths of the cornea. They are visible to the naked 
eye, or are seen better with a reading glass, with oblique or 
direct illumination. The spots are mostly circular, well 
defined, evenly distributed, or more or less grouped. In 
color they are usually white, occasionally darker. The rest 
of the eye appears normal. 

Prognosis . — Unfavorable . 

Treatment. —No treatment is of avail. 

Suppurative Keratitis. 

Ulceration of the Cornea.— Definition.— A destruction of 
the substance of the cornea, the result of infection with pus. 
The ulcers vary in size, some are not larger than a pin point; 
others involve a large part of the cornea. 

Etiology.— The causes of ulceration are varied. Wounds 
of the cornea, even though slight, form ports of entry for 
infection. In small animals the cornea is frequently injured 
by foreign bodies which enter the lid sac, by being bitten or 
scratched by other animals, or from an inversion of the 
eyelashes. 

The undue exposure of the cornea which accompanies 
lagophthalmus, exophthalmus, and paralysis of the fifth 
nerve is a predisposing cause. Ulceration of the cornea 
accompanying or following infectious diseases, especially 



KERATITIS 533 

distemper of the dog and cat, is not infrequent. Purulent 
infection of the conjunctiva (palpebral, scleral, corneal) may 
lead to ulceration. The microorganisms most frequently 
found are streptococci, staphylococci, pneumococci, and other 
pyogenic germs. 

The infection producing ulceration is no doubt in many 
cases carried by the blood to the cornea, and by the lymph 
into the cornea. Many diseases which reduce corneal 
resistance predispose to ulceration, such as chronic constitu- 
tional diseases, and some infectious diseases. In birds 
suppuration of the lacrimal passages and conjunctiva leads 
to ulceration as is frequently noted in epitheliosis. This 
form commonly, leads to perforation of the cornea. 

Symptoms.— Corneal ulcers vary considerably in size, form 
and depth. Any portion of the cornea may be the seat of 
one or more of them. In most cases, however, ulcers are 
found at or near the center of the cornea. In form they are 
mostly round with well defined, sharp borders as if cut out 
with a sharp instrument. In other cases their form is 
irregular. The base of the ulcer may be flat, concave, or 
convex; rough, vascular, or infiltrated. The cornea sur- 
rounding the ulcer is usually turbid, and secondary ulcers 
not uncommonly develop. Ulceration of the cornea accom- 
panying dog distemper often occurs suddenly, tends to spread 
rapidly and not infrequently leads to perforation in a few 
days. Photophobia, lacrimation, and congestion of the 
adjacent structures are nearly always present. Frequently 
a copious discharge of pus occurs from the affected eye. 
Pain may or may not be a prominent symptom, depending 
upon the cause of the ulcer and to what extent other struc- 
tures of the eye are involved. 

Course.— The usual course is chronic. Some cases require 
several weeks for complete disappearance. The ulcer may 
disappear without trace, or it may lead to perforation, or 
cicatrization and permanent opacity. 

Prognosis.— laceration of the cornea is always serious. 
Perforation, panophthalmitis, or opacity often follow it. Its 
chronicity and tendency to recurrence make the prognosis 
always guarded. 



534 DISEASES OF THE CORNEA 

Treatment.— Flush the corneal surface with a mild anti- 
septic solution (boric acid, 2 per cent.; ichthyol, 2 per cent.). 
If pain is present, drop into the eye a small amount of cocain, 
stovain or alypin solution, to reduce the irritation and 
prevent further injury by the patient rubbing or scratching 
the affected eye. This treatment will control the general 
infection preventing further spread of the ulcer. Where pus 
formation is copious (blennorrhea) an autogenic vaccine 
may be prepared and used in conjunction with the other 
treatment. 

Direct treatment of the ulcer requires judgment and care. 
Careful curetting followed by applying protargol solution 
(5 per cent.) is recommended. Good results have followed 
the use of succus cineraria maritima compositus (50 per cent.). 

When the ulcer shows a tendency to perforate an anti- 
septic pack should be applied to the eye (eyelids closed), 
and a head bandage to hold it in place. This will exert 
outside pressure and may prevent perforation, permitting in 
the meantime new formed granulation tissue to strengthen 
the defect. Lead and silver solutions should not be used 
too strong on account of the danger of permanent deposits 
resulting. Treatment should be applied daily. 

Abscess of the Cornea.— Definition.— A collection of pus in 
the cornea. Corneal abscesses are very common in dogs. 

Etiology.— Infection with pus organisms usually through 
wounds or abrasions. Foreign bodies, bites and scratches 
pave the way for an infection which results in abscess. 
Corneal abscesses commonly result from distemper of the 
dog and cat, and epitheliosis in birds. 

Symptoms.— The first symptoms noted are discharge of 
pus from the affected eye, photophobia, and a tendency to 
rub the eye with the paws. On examination a yellow, 
sharply defined abscess from the size of a pin-point to a wheat 
grain or larger is noted near the center of the cornea. The 
cornea surrounding the abscess may be transparent but is 
often turbid. As the abscess ages new formed bloodvessels 
are projected from the corneal bloodvessels across the cornea 
to the abscess. Surrounding the abscess a bloodvessel 
appears. If the abscess is large, or a number of small 



FOREIGN BODIES AND WOUNDS OF THE CORNEA 535 

abscesses are present, the curvature of the cornea becomes 
stronger, sometimes cone-shaped. Conjunctivitis, conges- 
tion of the episcleral bloodvessels, and profuse lacrimation 
accompany the abscess. 

Course.— Most cases require several weeks for complete 
recovery. As a rule the abscess ruptures outwardly; occa- 
sionally inwardly, discharging the pus into the anterior 
chamber causing hypopyon and in some cases suppurative 
panophthalmitis. Corneal ulcer may result from the abscess. 

Prognosis.— On account of the danger of serious complica- 
tions, the prognosis should be guarded. It is possible for 
the corneal abscess to heal without trace. 

Treatment.— To remove surface infection warm, antiseptic 
solutions (boric acid, 2 per cent.; ichthyol, 3 per cent.) may 
be used. Pain is controlled by cocain, stovain, alypin or 
codrenin. The abscess may be opened under strict antiseptic 
precautions and the cavity treated with protargol solution 
(5 per cent.). Treatment should be made daily. 

Keratitis Neuroparalytica.— Definition.— A rare affection in 
animals due to a paralysis of nerves (trigeminal, ciliary) lead- 
ing to undue exposure of the cornea. (See larger works.) 

Keratitis from Lagophthalmus.— Definition.— An inflam- 
mation of the cornea resulting from incomplete closing of the 
eyelids. The portions of the cornea not protected by the 
lid become dry, opaque, and ulcerated. Hypop^'on, iritis 
and panophthalmitis frequently result. 

Treatment.- Besides keeping the parts lubricated with 
glycerized antiseptics nothing can be done. 

FOREIGN BODIES AND WOUNDS OF THE CORNEA. 

Foreign bodies frequently enter the eyes of animals. Occa- 
sionally they become imbedded producing usually infected 
wounds of the cornea. Wounds also result from bites or 
scratches of other animals. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms of lacrimation, photophobia 
and pain develop suddenly following the injury. The 
examination of the eye should be made thorough, cA'erting 
the lids and nictating membrane, in order that foreign 
bodies will not be overlooked. 



536 DISEASES OF THE CORXEA 

Prognosis.— ProAiding too miicli injury has not been 
wrought by the offending foreign body, the prognosis is 
favorable. In making the prognosis one should bear in mind 
complications resulting from probable infection. 

Treatment.— Flush the eye with mild antiseptic solutions 
fboric acid. 2 per cent. ; ichthyol. 2 per cent. ; chinosol. 1-2000 '. 
Foreign bodies must be removed. Further treatment wi]l 
depend upon the progress of the case. The affected eye 
shotild be watched carefully and threatened compHcations 
promptly treated, ^ome wounds require careful handling 
in order to prevent perforation. 

OPACITIES OF THE CORNEA. 

!Most opacities of the cornea restilt from inflammation. 
Those resulting from other causes are ^'ery rare in animals. 
The majority follow wotmds. tilcers, irritant chemicals 
instilled into the eye, or burns. 

Depending upon their density, various terms have been 
applied to opacities: (a) Xebula, a slight turbidity. The 
cornea appears blue or slightly foggy, (b) Macula, a denser 
opacity easily seen in ordinary Hght. It may be milk white. 
(c) Albugo, a translucent opacity. 'J') Letikoma. the entire 
cornea becoming ttirbid, milk white. It may be either con- 
genital or acquired. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis depends upon the age of the 
patient, duration, location, extent and character of the 
opacity. The more recent the opacity, the more favorable 
the prognosis. Superficial opacities are more readily removed 
than deeper ones. However, the prognosis should be 
guarded. 

Treatment.— As most opacities of the cornea are composed 
of cicatricial tissue complete removal of them is very difficult. 
HoweA'er . some of them will entirely disappear and the cornea 
reasstime its former transparency. The foUo^ing agents are 
recommended: Dionin solution 1 5 to 10 per cent, i, or in the 
form of powder, has given excellent restilts. Begin with a 
few drops of a .5 per cent, solution instilled two or three 
times daily. The strength of the preparation may be 



ECTASIA OF THE CORNEA 537 

increased later if necessary. A severe reaction usually follows 
the first treatments. This disappears later when the strength 
of the solution can be increased. Red or yellow oxid of 
mercury ointment has also been used with good results. 
A small quantity is applied once daily. Silver nitrate 
solution (4 per cent.), or protargol (10 per cent.) is used to 
stimulate greater cellular activity in the region of the opacity. 
Succus cineraria maritima compositus is also of value. To 
obtain results treatment must be continued for a long time. 
As a last resort, when medical treatment does not suffice, 
iridectomy may be tried. The operation consists in making 
an artificial pupil so situated that light may reach the 
retina. 

ECTASIA OF THE CORNEA. 

Two types of ectasia are recognized: (a) Inflammatory 
ectasia, and (6) non-inflammatory ectasia. 

Inflammatory Ectasia.— Two forms occur in animals, viz.: 
Staphyloma, and keratectasia. 

St&jphyloma,.— Definition.— A protrusion of the cornea, the 
result of inflammation (ulceration, perforation, prolapsus of 
iris). Staphyloma may be partial or complete; in form 
spherical or conical. In animals it is usually complete the 
entire cornea protruding from the scleral margin. In color 
it is blue or black due to cellular infiltration and pigment 
deposit. The protrusion may interfere with the closing of 
the lids. Lacrimation, photophobia and pain are prominent 
symptoms. In the incomplete form (conical) only a portion 
of the cornea protrudes. 

Treatment.— TresLtment is usually unsatisfactory. The 
cause should be removed if possible. Appl}^ gentle pressure 
to the eye through antiseptic packs retained with a head 
bandage. When the intra-ocular pressure is too great, some 
of the fluid from the anterior chamber may be aspirated 
before applying the pack. Permanent satisfactory results 
can hardly be hoped for. When other treatment fails the 
afl'ected eye should be enucleated. 

Keratectasia.— Z)e/?n7'/o??.— Keratectasia involves only the 
cornea which has become weakened at some point either from 



538 DISEASES OF THE CORNEA 

infiltration or from an ulcer which has not perforated its 
entire thickness. In keratectasia the iris is not involved as 
in staphyloma. 

Treatment. —Heiieve the intra-ocular tension and apply a 
compress. Iridectomy may be useful in some cases. 

Non-inflammatory Ectasia.— Two forms are recognized: 
Keratoconus, and keratoglobus. 

Keratoconus.— A cone-shaped protrusion of the cornea 
which does not become opaque. It results from a weakening 
of the cornea at its center and an increase in intra-ocular 
tension. The condition is incurable. 

Keratoglobus.— The entire cornea is enlarged as the result 
of a general increase in size of the entire eyeball. It is seen 
in hydrophthalmus. The cornea retains its transparency. 
The condition is usually congenital and most often observed 
in young dogs and young cats. 

Treatment. — No treatment is of any value. 

TUMORS OF THE CORNEA. 

Tumors of the cornea are rare in animals. Dermoids are 
occasionally met with in dogs and cats. Sarcomas and 
carcinomas have been noted. They usually originate either 
in some other part of the eye or in adjacent tissues. 

Treatment.— Surgical trea,tment should be attempted as 
earh^ as possible. No treatment should be attempted in 
malignant tumors. 



CHAPTER V. 
DISEASES OF THE IRIS AND CILIARY BODY. 

General.— In practice it is very difficult to separate the 
diseases of the iris and ciliary body of which the iris is 
practically an extension. The structure of the iris is much 
the same in all animals. The arrangement of its muscular 
fibers in different animals accounts for the variation in the 
shape of the pupil. In the cat the pupil is an elongated 
slit; in dogs it is spherical or oval. 

The color of the iris is due to the quantity of pigme nt 
present in the posterior layers and in the membrane proper. 
Frequently the pigment is entirely absent producing the 
albino or pink eye. This is common in rabbits and is 
occasionally observed in other animals. The other colors, 
such as blue, black or gray eyes, are determined by the 
amount and distribution of the pigment. A more com- 
plete examination of the iris can be made if a few drops of 
eserin are instilled into the eye to contract the pupil. The 
examination should be made for congenital defects, inflam- 
mations, tumors, etc. 

CONGENITAL DEFECTS OF THE IRIS. 

A number of defects in the formation and development 
of the iris has been observed: (a) Occlusion of the pupil, 
occurring in the dog, cat and rabbit, causing congenital 
blindness. (6) Ectopia pupillae, a displacement of the 
pupil often found accompanying luxation of the lens, (c) 
Coloboma, a portion of the iris failing causing a large, 
irregular-shaped opening, (d) Aniridia, absence of the iris, 
very unusual in animals. Treatment for these conditions 
is unsatisfactory. The size and form of the ])U])il are 
influenced l)y light, disease and medication. 



540 DISEASES OF THE IRIS AND CILIARY BODY 

MYDRIASIS. 

Definition.— A dilatation of the pupil. It may be due to: 
(a) Paralysis of the third nerve, (6) disease of the central 
nervous system, (c) constitutional diseases, (d) poisons, (e) 
mydriatics. 

Mydriasis is produced artificially in order to examine 
the interior of the eye. 

MYOSIS. 

Definition. — A contraction of the pupil. It is caused by 
paralysis of the cervical sympathetic nerves, tabes dorsahs, 
inflammation of the iris, foreign bodies in the cornea and by 
myotic drugs (morphin, codrenin, eserin). It is frequently 
noted in rabid animals. 

IRITIS AND CYCLITIS. IRIDOCYCLITIS. 

Definition. —An inflammation of the iris and of the ciliary 
body. They usually co-exist and will be therefore con- 
sidered together (iridocyclitis). 

Etiology.— Traumatism. A primary iridocyclitis is not 
common. Most cases are secondary to other diseases, 
such as distemper of the dog and cat; 

Symptoms.— Iridocyclitis is characterized by congestion, 
discoloration, loss of the normal striations and inability 
of the iris to react to light or other stimulse. The pupil is 
usually found contracted. While it is possible for the 
iridian exudate to be very limited, the inflammation stopping 
in the congestive stage, as a rule, it is profuse, falls oft' 
the iris and accumulates in the anterior chamber (hypopyon 
if purulent). The exudate, which is usually fibrinous, may 
be seen through the cornea as a movable, yellow, sometimes 
blood-streaked accumulation floating in the anterior cham- 
ber. If an adhesion between the iris and the cornea results, 
anterior synechia is spoken of; if between the iris and lens, 
posterior synechia. Symptoms of lacrimation, photophobia 
and congestion of the conjunctiva are usually present. The 
cornea is nearly always involved, appearing as if lightly 
greased over its surface. When the ciliary bodies are 



CYSTS AND TUMORS OF THE IRIS 541 

prominently involved a turbidity of the corneal margins is 
noted. Exudate, which has passed through the pupil, 
reaches the anterior chamber producing the same symptoms 
as iridian exudate. The iris may be only shghtly involved 
as is determined by its color, striations and reaction to 
light. 

Course.— The course in iridocyclitis is usually short. The 
inflammation rapidly subsides and the exudate is quickly 
resorbed. A few cases become chronic and lead to posterior 
synechia. 

Prognosis. — In uncomplicated cases the prognosis is favor- 
able. When the choroid or retina is involved the prognosis 
is guarded. 

Treatment.— When secondary to constitutional diseases, 
distemper, etc., these should receive attention. Local 
treatment consists in instilling atropin solution (0.5 to 1 
per cent.) once or twice daily, which paralyzes the accom- 
modation, relieves pain and congestion and prevents adhe- 
sions. Dionin solution (4 per cent.) is also useful to stimulate 
the lymph circulation. Hot applications in the form of a 
hot-water compress are of great service. They should be 
applied for an hour at a time during the first twenty-four 
to thirty-six hours. Antiseptic and astringent solutions, 
such as succus cineraria maritima compositus (50 per cent.), 
or ichthyol (4 per cent.) may also be used. Complications 
should be treated as they arise. 

CYSTS AND TUMORS OF THE IRIS. 

Cysts involving the iris are quite rare. They most often 
result from injury and appear as enlargements on the iris. 
It is difficult to distinguish between cysts and tumors. 
They are treated by puncturing, under antiseptic precau- 
tions, with a knife needle inserted through the corneal 
margin. 

Both benign and malignant tumors may involve the iris. 
Melanoma is the most frequent primary tumor. Sarcomas 
and carcinomas also occur. They usually extend from 
adjacent structures which are their primary seats. Treat- 
ment consists in enucleating the eyeball. 



CHAPTER VI. 

DISEASES OF THE LENS. 

Examination. —The lens is best examined after dilating 
the pupil with- atropin. The patient should be placed in 
a good light or light may be reflected with an ophthalmo- 
scope against the lens. Normally the lens is transparent. 
It should be examined for turbidity, position and form. 
In old dogs the lens is usually less transparent than in 
younger animals. 

CATARACT. 

Definition. —An opacity of the lens, its capsule or both. 
Cataract is common in the dog and cat, especially in old 
animals. ^ The following kinds occur: (a) Symptomatic, 
(h) traumatic, (c) senile, (d) diabetic, (e) congenital. 

Symptomatic Cataract. —This form results from an inflam- 
mation of some of the adjacent structures which interferes 
with the nutrition of the lens. In the dog and cat it often 
develops from distemper. 

Traumatic Catorad.— Traumatic cataract is caused by 
injury to the lens by sharp objects which penetrate the 
cornea. Or it may be due to indirect injury, the animal 
receiving a blow which jars the lens from its fastenings. It 
may, therefore, result from fracture of the orbit or some of 
the other bones of the head. 

Senile Cataract.— Common in old dogs. It is due to an 
atrophy of the lens and is usually bilateral. In the early 
stages senile cataract usually appears as radiating, gray 
lines which extend from the periphery to the center of the 
lens. In other cases it may occur as an opaque spot or 
spots in the lens. The opacity spreads until eventually the 
entire lens is involved. 



CATARACT 543 

Diabetic Cataract.— Yery rare in animals. A few cases have 
been noted in dogs. 

Congenital Cataract.— Quite common in young dogs. As 
a rule, the lens only is involved. It is often bilateral. It 
may be partial or complete. 

Symptoms.— G^^nera/. — In animals cataract is usually over- 
looked until it becomes so well marked as to be visible to the 
ordinary observer. Partial cases are sometimes discovered 
during an examination of the eye for some other disease. In 
using the ophthalmoscope in cataract the light should not be 
too strong. Under subdued light the opacity appears as a dark 
spot, its color differentiating it from the tapetum lucidum or 
the red papilla. Cataract should be distinguished from foreign 
bodies on the cornea, corneal opacities and turbidity of the 
vitreous humor. In most cases a careful examination with 
an ophthalmoscope will sufHce to differentiate between lens 
opacities and those in other parts of the eye. When the 
diagnosis cataract has been made, the form and cause 
should be determined whenever possible. The history of 
the case, the age and condition of the patient, and the 
appearance of the opacity are indicative. 

Course.— The course in cataract is chronic, usually lead- 
ing to complete loss of vision. Occasionally a traumatic 
cataract develops rapidly and undergoes a spontaneous 
recovery within a short time. Such cases are rare. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable. 

Treatment.— The only treatment of value is an opera- 
tion to remove the lens. In veterinary practice the diffi- 
culty in keeping the parts aseptic, the dressings in place 
and the patient quiet, is so great that cataract operations 
are seldom employed. There are two operations for cata- 
ract: (a) A discission of the lens, and (6) extraction of the 
lens. 

Discission.— Discisi^ion is practised only in congenital 
cataract, or when cataract appears early in life, is soft and 
capable of absorption. The operation is performed under 
complete anesthesia and strict asepsis. The eye to be 
operated is flushed out with an antiseptic solution (boric 
acid, 2 per cent.; bichlorid of mercury, 1-5000), followed 



544 DISEASES OF THE LEXS 

by a solution of atropin (1 per cent.^ to dilate the pupil. 
The lids are held open with an eye speculum. With a 
special instrument, a small knife-needle, which is passed 
tlirough the cornea at its margin and pushed diagonally 
through the lens capsule into the lens proper, the lens is 
cut and separated. The instrument is then withdrawn 
carefully so as to avoid injury to the cornea. An absorp- 
tion of the lens should follow. If not, the operation may be 
repeated in a few weeks. 

Complications, such as swelling of the lens and increased 
intra-ocular tension with severe pain, may follow the opera- 
tion. Cold packs are recommended to reduce the swelling. 
If they afford no relief within a short time the cornea may 
be punctured at its margin which relieves the tension. 
Through the same opening the lens substance may be 
removed. If iritis result from particles of the lens coming 
in contact with the iris, instil atropin solution and apply 
hot packs. 

Extraction. —The lens is extracted in all cases when the 
discission operation is contra-indicated. The technic of 
the operation is rather difficult and requires much practice. 
It consists briefly in incising the cornea in the sclerocorneal 
limbus, fixing the eyeball with a special fixation forceps, 
incising the capsule of the lens, and expressing the lens. 
The eye should be cleansed and a dressing applied. Many 
complications may foUow the operation in animals: 
Panophthalmitis, prolapse of the iris; iritis and cyclitis in 
a small percentage of cases. Proper and careful dressing of 
the woimd after the operation is especially important. 

LUXATION OF THE LENS. 

Luxation is not very frequent in small animals. In most 
instances it results from traumatism. It may be due to 
extreme intra-ocular tension in either chamber of the eye, 
or from rupture of the suspensory ligaments of the lens. 
The luxation may be partial or complete; into the anterior 
or posterior chamber. 

Treatment.— Treatment is of no value. A removal of the 
lens is occasionally employed. 



CHAPTER VII. 
DISEASES OF THE RETINA AND CHOROID. 

These membranes can be seen only with the ophthalmo- 
scope. It is best to dilate the pupil in order to increase 
the size of the field of the eye's background. 

The following pathological changes may be noted on the 
retina: (a) Hyperemia, (b) edema, (c) inflammation (retin- 
itis), (d) detachment of the retina, (e) anemia, (/) atrophy. 

Hyperemia. — A congestion of the retina. The blood- 
vessels will be found dilated and engorged with blood. 

Edema.— Hare in animals. It may result from direct 
injury, or inflammatory exudate which collects in the retina. 
The retina appears cloudy. 

Inflammation (Retinitis).— An inflammation of the retina. 
It usually develops during or as a sequel to infectious or 
chronic constitutional diseases. It is characterized by hyper- 
emia, edema, partial or complete obliteration of the papilla 
and hemorrhage. 

Detachment of the Retina.— B^are in animals. It may result 
from an accumulation of exudate or transudate between 
the retina and choroid, which causes the retina to become 
detached and float loose in the vitreous humor. It causes 
partial or complete blindness. 

Anemia.— Ketmal anemia usually results from general 
hemorrhage; obviously it accompanies general anemia. It 
may have a local origin, the bloodvessels supplying the 
retina becoming blocked and pressed upon by tumors or 
inflammatory growths. The retina appears pale and the 
bloodvessels reduced in size. 

Atrophy.— VsusiWy follows extensive and severe retinitis; 
or when the nutrition of the retina has become reduced. 
The bloodvessels appear unusually small; in some cases 
hardly visible. 

The diseases of the choroid are so intimately interwoven 
with those of the other membranes that a separate descrip- 
tion is unnecessary, 
35 



CHAPTER VIII. 
DISEASES OF THE OPTIC NERVE. 

Usually when the optic nerve is affected diseases of 
other structures, particularly of the retina, co-exist. 

The principal pathological changes affecting the optic 
nerve are: (a) Wounds, (b) hemorrhages, (c) inflammation, 
(d) tumors. 

The optic nerve is also affected by inflammation of adja- 
cent structures, and diseases of the central nervous system. 

The diseases of the optic nerve usually noted are: (a) 
Papillitis, (6) retrobulbar neuritis, (c) atrophy. Clinically 
amblyopia and amaurosis are recognized. 

PAPILLITIS. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the papifla. It may be 
unilateral or bilateral. It is usually caused by poisons, 
traumatism and diseases of the central nervous system. 
Viewed with the ophthalmoscope the papilla appears either 
enlarged and engorged with blood or, on the other hand, too 
pale— even white in color. Its outline is usually indistinct 
and striations are seen radiating from its center. When 
due to tumors and marked congestion is present, the papilla 
appears intensely red ("choked disk")- 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable. Partial or com- 
plete blindness will usually result. 

RETROBULBAR NEURITIS. 

Definition.— An inflammation oi the optic nerve just 
posterior to its entrance into the eyeball. It may result 
from injuries, infection through wounds invohdng the 
orbit; or attend nasal catarrh, or dog distemper which has 



AMAUROSIS 547 

attacked the sinuses of the head. The patient is partially 
or totally blind. The papilla will appear congested. Many 
cases will recover when the cause is removed. 

ATROPHY OF THE OPTIC NERVE. 

Definition.— It may result from inflammation or be a simple 
atrophy. Blindness is a prominent symptom. 
Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable. 

AMBLYOPIA. 

Definition.— Partial blindness. No lesion can be deter- 
mined. In animals it usually results from poisoning. As a 
rule when the cause is removed sight is restored. 

AMAUROSIS. 

Definition.— Blindness without visible lesion of the eye. 
Amaurosis is a symptom and not a disease. The term is 
falling into disuse as ophthalmoscopy becomes better 
developed. It may be congenital or acquired. Diseases 
of the optic nerve, retina, brain and certain poisons are its 
principal causes. The symptoms are blindness, abnormal 
dilatation of the pupil which does not react to light. In 
the early stages the e^^e appears normal but in time the 
globe becomes atrophic. Ophthalmoscopic examination may 
be negative, although usually changes can be noted on the 
retina or papilla. There is no treatment of value. Cases 
due to poisons may recover. 



CHAPTER IX. 

DISEASES OF THE GLOBE AND ORBIT. 

Injuries to the eyeball are very common. They occm' 
as wounds, lacerations and contusions. Sometimes the 
eyeball is ruptured. Diseases involving the globe and 
orbit are also frequent. The following are the most impor- 
tant: (a) Panophthalmitis, (b) glaucoma, (c) hydrophthal- 
mus, (d) exophthalmus, (e) luxation of the eyeball, (/) 
enophthalmus, (g) strabismus, (h) nystagmus, (i) parasites, 
(j) fracture of the orbit, (k) inflammation of the orbit, (?) 
tumors of the orbit. 

PANOPHTHALMITIS. 

Definition.— An inflammation of the entire eyeball. It is 
usually due to injury with infection, or may develop during 
the course of infectious diseases, the infection being carried 
to the eye by the blood or lymph. 

Symptoms.— The initial symptoms will vary, depending 
upon whether the infection enters through wounds (exo- 
genetic) or is carried by the blood or lymph (endogenic). 
When panophthalmitis begins in the posterior part of the 
eye it may escape attention until the anterior portion is 
involved. In cases of exogenetic origin usually a wound 
through the cornea or sclera is found out of which pus 
discharges. In endogenic infection a general congestion of 
the eyeball is an early symptom. As the disease progresses 
perforation usually through the cornea with prolapsus of the 
iris and sometimes the lens follows. As a rule, the eyeball 
is destroyed. 

Diagnosis.— Panophthalmitis should be differentiated from 
phlegmonous conjunctivitis and inflammation of other 



GLAUCOMA 549 

parts of the eye. These sometimes present symptoms con- 
fusingly like it. The eye should be carefully examined to 
avoid error in this regard. Should a perforating wound be 
found the diagnosis is simplified. 

Prognosis.— Unfavorable. Almost every case leads to 
destruction of the ej^eball. 

Treatment. —An effort should be made to arrest the spread 
of the infection. Obviously as the deeper structures are 
involved this is difficult to accomplish. The eye should 
be flushed with warm antiseptic solutions (boric acid, 2 per 
cent.; ichthyol, 3 per cent). Subconjunctival injections of 
1-2 c.c. of a solution of cyanide of mercury (0.5 per cent.) 
are recommended. Suppurating wounds should be drained 
and flushed out. Usually enucleation of the eyeball becomes 
necessary. 

GLAUCOMA. 

Definition.— A term applied to a number of diseases of 
the eye marked by intense intra-ocular tension, atrophy 
of the papilla and blindness. It is rare in animals. It 
is supposed to be due to some disturbance in the lymph 
or blood circulation of the eyeball which may be congenital 
or acquired. 

Symptoms.— Glaucoma develops gradually without signs 
of inflammation and with little evidence of pain. The early 
stages are often overlooked. As the disease progresses the 
pupil dilates and a marked hardness of the eyeball develops 
due to increased intra-ocular pressure. The cornea may be 
clear or cloudy. With the ophthalmoscope the optic nerve 
appears cupped. The vision is gradually destroyed. In 
some cases (inflammatory glaucoma) acute inflammatory 
symptoms suddenly develop. 

Prognosis.— Bad. 

Treatment.— Eserin or pilocarpin should be tried; if 
unsuccessful relieve the intra-ocular pressure by paracentesis 
of the anterior chamber of the eye. The results are usually 
unsatisfactory. 



550 DISEASES OF THE GLOBE AND ORBIT 

HYDROPHTHALMUS. 

Definition.— An enlargement of the eyeball in all its dimen- 
sions. It is common in pups and kittens. Hydrophthalmus 
develops slowly, the eyeball enlarging, the curvature of 
the cornea becoming weaker, the pupil dilated, intra-ocular 
pressure increased, and the papilla cupped. The condition 
is usually congenital. 

Treatment.— Eserin and pilocarpin are recommended, but 
the}^ do little good. Paracentesis of the anterior chamber will 
relieve intra-ocular pressure as in glaucoma. Iridectomy may 
be tried. 

EXOPHTHALMUS. 

Definition.— An abnormal protrusion of the eyeball. It 
shoyld not be confused with normally prominent eyeballs of 
some breeds of dogs. 

Etiology.— Fracture of the orbital arch, the displaced bones 
forcing the eyeball outward; edema, abscess or hematoma 
in the postbulbar tissue; retrobulbary cellulitis; intra-orbital 
tumors; tuberculous growths in the orbit. Exophthalmus is 
a prominent symptom of exophthalmic goiter in dogs. 

Symptoms.— One or both eyes appear unduly prominent. 
As the eyelids do not entirely cover the eye the surface of 
the cornea becomes dry and ulcerated. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis should be guarded. 

Treatment.— Treatment is only successful when the cause 
can be removed. Tumors should be operated, enlarged 
thyroids removed and the affected eyeball protected. 

LUXATION OF THE EYEBALL. 

Common in the dog and cat. Dogs with prominent 
eyes are predisposed. It results from injury, fighting, 
becoming caught in doors, etc. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis will depend upon how long 
the eye has been prolapsed, the degree of injury to the optic 
nerve and to the eyeball. 

Treatment.— The patient should be anesthetized and the 
prolapsed eye flushed with a warm antiseptic solution 



ENOPHTHALMUS 551 

(boric acid, 2 per cent.). Try replacement by picking 
up the eyelids, retracting them as much as possible, at 
the same time gently but firmly pressing the eyeball back 
into its socket. It may be necessary to enlarge the palpe- 
bral slit by cutting the outer canthus. After replacement 
two or three stitches will retain the eyeball in position. 
The after-treatment consists in fomenting the eye with 
warm water and keeping it lubricated with dilute glycerin 
or liquid vaselin. Should panophthalmitis or hydrophthal- 
mitis develop, or the luxation reappear, enucleation of the 
eyeball should be practised. The operation is as follows: 
The patient should be given a general anesthetic and the 
eyeball thoroughly washed with an antiseptic. The lids 
are held apart by a retractor, or with dressing forceps 
held by an assistant. Make an incision through the con- 
junctiva at the corneal margin, dissect back to the muscles, 
cutting them off close to their attachment. to the eyeball. 
Keep as close to the eyeball as possible. When all of the 
muscles have been cut away pull the eyeball downward and 
excise the optic nerve. Control hemorrhage, pack the 
socket with sterile gauze, or iodoform gauze, put retaining 
sutures in the lids, and cover the whole with an antiseptic 
pack held in place with a head bandage. In twenty-four 
hours remove the pack and treat with antiseptic dusting 
powder. Healing is usually prompt. 



ENOPHTHALMUS. 

Definition.— An abnormal sinking of the eyeball into the 
orbit. It is rare in animals. 

Etiology.— It may be congenital. Most cases, however, 
are acquired and due to an atrophy of the retrobulbar fat 
cushion, general emaciation, spasms of the muscles of the 
eye. 

Symptoms.— The eyeball appears retracted into its socket. 
It should be distinguished from normal eyes which are 
unusually small. The general condition of the patient 
suffices for difl'erentiation. 



552 DISEASES OF THE GLOBE AND ORBIT 

Prognosis.— Depends upon the cause. 
Treatment.— Determine the cause and eliminate it by 
proper treatment. 

STRABISMUS. 

Definition.— A deviation of one of the eyes from its normal 
direction so that the visual axes cannot be focussed simul- 
taneously on the same objective point. 

Etiology.— It may be due to a mechanical interference 
with the movement and position of the eyeball, paralysis of 
the muscles of the eye, intracranial paralysis, spasms of the 
eye muscles, cerebral hemorrhage, and poisoning. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is not difficult. One eye ^'ill 
be turned inward or outward while the fellow one is directed 
straight ahead. 

Treatment.— A palliative treatment consists in appMng 
a counterirritant to the region of the orbit and administering 
internally small doses of iodid of potash. A radical treat- 
ment is to perform a tenotomy, severing one of the tendons 
of the eye muscle at its insertion into the sclera. The 
particular tendon to be divided is determined by the indi- 
vidual case. If the strabismus is convergent the internal 
rectus is cut; if divergent, the external. The operation is 
briefly as follows: Give a general anesthetic. Flush the 
eye with antiseptics and follow by a solution of codrenin to 
control the hemorrhage. Cut through the conjunctiva and 
carefully dissect down to the tendon which grasp with a 
blunt hook, pull forward and cut off with a scissors. Unless 
the tendon is entirely severed the results will not be satis- 
factory. The wound in the conjunctiva may be left open. 
Flush out daily with antiseptic solution. 

NYSTAGMUS. 

Definition.— A continuous rolling movement of the eye- 
ball. It occurs occasionally in dogs. It very often accom- 
panies epilepsy, convulsions, parasitic invasion of the ear, 
catarrh of the ear and sometimes accompanies chloroform 
narcosis. 



TUMORS OF THE ORBIT 553 

Treatment.— No treatment beyond rectifying the primar}^ 
condition of which it is a symptom is recommended. 

PARASITES OF THE EYE. 

Lice (pedicuU) are often found on the margins of the 
hds and on the skin over the orbital region. Mange mites 
also invade the lids. The demodex mite may enter the 
Meibomian glands, conjunctiva and lacrimal apparatus. 
The Filaria oculi canini is occasionally found, and spiroptera 
have been noted in the eyes of birds. 

FRACTURE OF THE ORBIT. 

Common in animals. Careful palpation will reveal 
crepitation. 

Treatment.— Treatment should follow the general principles 
of surgery. Possible injury to the eyeball demands first 
consideration. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE ORBIT. 

Usually results from traumatism. Due to the abundance 
of fat, inflammation of the orbit spreads rapidly and always 
endangers the optic nerve and eyeball. It is usually diffi- 
cult to obtain proper drainage or to apply antiseptics to 
stop the progress of the inflammation. An attempt should 
be made, however, to secure drainage and keep the parts 
clean. 

. TUMORS OF THE ORBIT. 

Infrequent. Sarcomas, carcinomas, epitheliomas and oste- 
omas have been noted in this region. It is usually necessary 
to enucleate the eyeball in order to remove them. Malig- 
nant tumors are apt to recur. 



PART XIII. 
HERNIA. 



Definition.— The term hernia is appKed to a protrusion of a 
portion of the abdominal contents through a normal or an 
abnormal opening in the abdominal wall. The larger number 
of hernias is found under the skin, the smaller through the 
diaphragm. 

Occurrence.— Hernia is very frequent in the dog but rather 
rare in other small animals. 

General Remarks. —Hernia may consist of a portion of the 
bowel (enterocele), a section of the omentum (epiplocele), or 
a combination of both (entero-epiplocele) ; further, a portion 
of the uterus may be protruded (metrocele) , or the uterus and 
its ligamentous attachments (metro-mesometrocele) . Some 
of the other organs are occasionally found in the hernial sac, 
such as the liver (hepatocele) , etc. In the dog it is possible 
to find almost any one of the organs of the abdominal cavity 
present in the hernial sac. The number and forms of hernia 
are quite varied. 

The following parts are distinguished in a hernia: (a) 
Hernial sac, (h) hernial ring, (c) hernial contents. 

(a) The hernial sac consists of the skin, subcutaneous 
cellular tissues, and in most cases the peritoneum. Some- 
times the peritoneum is ruptured and when this occurs the 
skin and subcutaneous tissues constitute the hernial sac. 

{h) The hernial ring is the opening through which the 
contents pass from the abdominal cavity. In recent hernias 
the ring is made up of the margins of the muscular tissue, and 
its size is determined by the rent in the abdominal wall. In 



556 HERNIA 

old cases connective tissue elements form around the margins 
which results in a distinct, firm ring. Palpation of a hernia 
will often reveal a well defined, firm enlargement which will 
serve to differentiate recent from long standing cases. 

(c) The contents of a hernia are quite varied and will 
depend somewhat on its location. In most cases they consist 
of a portion of bowel, or omentum, or both. In a smaller 
number a portion of one of the other abdominal organs is 
present, such as the liver, stomach, spleen, uterus or bladder. 
When the contents fluctuate on palpation it may be due to the 
fluid content in the loop of bowel, or to serum which accumu- 
lates from a venous stagnation of the imprisoned contents. 

From a practical standpoint it is important to classify 
hernias into: (a) Reducible, and (6) irreducible. 

(a) Reducible hernias are those in which the contents can 
be readily replaced in the abdominal cavity. This may be 
done by manipulation, or is often accomplished by changing 
the position of the patient. Such hernias present certain 
characteristic s;^Tiiptoms: They are enlargements, usually 
appearing on some portion of the abdominal wall, non-inflam- 
matory (usually), easily replaced in the cavity, and the ring 
readily distinguished. It is possible in many cases to 
determine the character of the hernial contents by palpation. 
Adhesions will take place in some cases between the hernial 
sac and its contents which wiU interfere with complete reduc- 
tion of the enlargement. In this case, as soon as pressure is 
removed from the outside, the hernial contents will again 
reappear in the sac. Practically all reducible hernias return 
unless outside pressure is maintained. 

(b) Irreducible hernias are those which cannot be returned 
by manipulation to the abdominal cavity. This condition 
may be brought about by adhesions between the different 
parts of the hernia, by swelling around the hernial ring, or by 
strangulation with subsequent swelling of the hernial con- 
tents. When a loop of bowel is present in the hernial sac 
strangulation frequently occurs from fecal matter accumu- 
lating and distending the prolapsed bowel. It is very impor- 
tant to distinguish between strangulated and non-strangu- 
lated hernias. The differentiation is made very definitely 



UMBILICAL HERNIA 557 

by the symptoms shown by the patient and the local examina- 
tion of the hernia. Marked symptoms of pain, vomiting, 
and local inflammation indicate strangulation. During the 
secondary stages of its development the hernial sac becomes 
cold, doughy, and non-sensitive to the touch. Fecal fistulse 
(intestinal fistulse) occur in some cases from a sloughing of 
a portion of the intestine. 

Forms.— The following are the most common hernias found 
in small animals: (a) Umbilical, ih) ventral, (c) inguinal, 
{(l) femoral, {e) diaphragmatic, and (/) perineal. 

Umbilical Hernia.— Etiology.— This form occurs either 
congenitally (usual) or a short time after birth. The hernial 
ring is formed by an improper closure of the umbilicus, or the 
fibrous organization being of insufficient strength allowing 
the abdominal contents to ' pass through. Occasionally 
umbilical hernia occurs accidentally in which case the peri- 
toneum forms the inner portion of the hernial sac. 

The hernial contents may consist of omentum, small or 
large intestines, or both. In most cases in puppies the sac 
contains only omentum. 

Symptoms.— The presence of an enlargement at the umbili- 
cus which may be soft or firm, depending on the contents and 
local conditions. In most cases the contents can be readily 
returned to the abdominal cavity. Occasionally adhesions 
are present which prevent this. Strangulation is very rare 
in this hernia. 

Treatment.— In puppies many cases disappear sponta- 
neously. Several methods of procedure in treatment have 
been recommended: 

(a) Pressure bandage, or adhesive tape, applied over the 
part for a few days has proved satisfactory in many cases. 
This method keeps the contents in the cavity, allowing time 
for fibrous tissue organization to close the ring. 

(6) Operation.— y^Yven adhesions are present or the ring is 
of considerable size, it is advisable to perform herniotomy. 
The animal is anesthetized, placed in a dorsal position on the 
table, the hair removed from the area and painted with 
tincture of iodin. An incision is made through the skin of 
sufficient length, dissecting the hernial contents from the 



558 HERNIA 

adjacent tissues, if necessary, carefully so as to avoid injuring 
the bowel. Return the contents to the abdominal cavity. 
Remove a small portion of the hernial ring on either side 
making a fresh wound surface to facilitate union of the 
parts. Suture the wound and apply after-treatment as in 
laparotomy (see Laparotomy). 

Ventral Hernia,— Definition.— Ventral hernia is a term 
applied to a subcutaneous rupture of the abdominal muscles 
which permits the abdominal contents to pass through. 
This may occur at any point in the abdominal walls. The 
hernial sac consists of the peritoneum, subcutaneous tissue 
and the skin in the majority of cases. Sometimes the peri- 
toneum is also ruptured allowing the contents to lie immedi- 
ately under the skin. 

Etiology. —The cause of ventral hernia is usually traumatic, 
or intra-abdominal pressure. In some instances when 
incomplete union of the abdominal muscles takes place 
following surgical operations, a hernia will develop. 

Sjonptoms.- The sudden development of an enlargement 
appearing at some point in the abdominal wall. The size of 
the hernia will depend upon the extent of the rent in the 
abdominal muscles. Palpation of the enlargement will 
reveal a soft, fluctuating or elastic mass which can be reduced 
in most cases except when strangulated. When reduction is 
brought about the opening through the abdominal muscles 
can be easily determined and the margins of the hernial ring 
felt. Changing the position of the patient will bring about 
reduction except when adhesions are present or the parts 
strangulated. Unless the hernia is very recent or strangu- 
lated, there will be no inflammation nor pain present on 
manipulation. It is necessary to differentiate recent hernia 
from abscess. This can be done by careful palpation or by 
explorative operation. Some difficulty will be experienced 
in distinguishing between incarcerated hernia and tumors. 
However, the consistency, location and an explorative opera- 
tion if necessary, will serve to make the distinction. A 
strangulated ventral hernia will be characterized by symp- 
toms of inflammation, doughy consistency, pain on palpation 
and the general reaction of the patient. 



VENTRAL HERNIA 559 

Treatment.— After the examination has been made carefully 
to determine the exact conditions, then it is possible to decide 
on the method of procedure. Treatment in ventral hernia 
should be operative. There is very little danger providing 
the usual precautions are observed in opening the abdominal 
cavity. 

In ventral hernia without strangulation or incarceration 
the operation is performed as follows : The animal is given a 
laxative and fasted for twenty-four hours. The field of 
operation is shaved and an antiseptic pack applied for the 
same period. The animal is then given an anesthetic, 
preferably morphin, placed on the operating table in an 
advantageous position, the paok removed and the surface 
painted with tincture of iodin. A longitudinal incision is 
made immediately over the hernia through the skin and 
parallel to the rent in the abdominal wall. The hernial 
contents are returned to the abdominal cavity. It is 
advisable to open the hernial sac in order to determine the 
condition of the hernial contents. When they are found 
normal and no evidence of injury to the structures the hernial 
sac can be trimmed off with the scissors and the rent in the 
abdominal wall sutured. If the hernial ring indicates fibrous 
tissue formation, it is advisable to trim off the margins with 
a scissors or knife to produce a fresh wound surface for 
approximation. The abdominal wound is then closed as in 
laparotomy (see Laparotomy) . 

In strangulated ventral hernia treatment should be 
attempted as early as possible. The same precautions should 
be observed as above and the contents examined to deter- 
mine the cause of the strangulation and the condition of the 
contents of the hernial sac. If the strangulation is produced 
by a constricted ring it should be enlarged with a probe- 
pointed knife sufficiently to allow the contents to be returned 
to the abdominal cavity. The wound in the wall is closed 
in the usual manner. If the hernial contents have been 
strangulated and retained until gangrenous then proper 
treatment should be employed. A section of bowel or omen- 
tum may be removed without difficulty and successfully 
when properly done. Adhesions when present should be 



560 HERNIA 

carefully broken down to allow the contents to be returned. 
Some of these cases may present special problems, and there- 
fore a careful examination of the contents should always be 
made. The after-treatment would consist of keeping an 
antiseptic pack in contact with the wound for a few days 
until union takes place. There is a possibility of a recurrence 
of the condition if union of the abdominal wall is incomplete. 
Reoperation is recommended when this occurs. 

Inguinal Hernia.— It is necessary to divide this form of 
hernia into two classes on account of the anatomical differ- 
ences in the female and male animal: 1. Inguinal hernia in 
the female, and 2. inguinal and scrotal hernia in the male. 

1. Inguinal Hernia in tlm Femdile.— Etiology.— A very 
common form of hernia. The inguinal canal in the female 
is very short and the diameter usually greater than in the 
male animal. During pregnancy considerable strain is 
thrown upon these structures resulting in a hernia. It may 
result also from increased intra-abdominal pressure, from 
ascites, distention of the organs, or hypertrophy. Congenital 
inguinal hernia in the female has been observed. 

The hernial contents consist of the round ligament with 
peritoneum, or one or both cornua of the uterus. In a 
smaller number of cases other abdominal organs may be 
present. 

Symptoms.— An enlargement appearing just posterior to the 
inguinal mammae ^ It varies in size from a small, rounded 
mass to one of sufficient proportions to reach the ground. 
The consistency of the hernia will depend on its contents, 
sometimes fluctuating, at other times firm. When the 
animal is pregnant the fetuses may be palpated in the hernial 
sac. The contents, if no adhesions are present, may be 
easily pushed back into the abdominal cavity and the hernial 
ring distinctly felt. Placing the dog in a dorsal position 
with the hind limbs elevated often will effect replacement. 
Further, there is no symptom of inflammation and the parts 
are non-sensitive on palpation. All enlargements appearing 
in this location should be examined from the standpoint of 
hernia as it is not always possible to reduce them and palpate 
the ring. 



INGUINAL AND SCROTAL HERNIA IN THE MALE 561 

Treatment.— O^fersition is advised in all cases. Herniotomy 
is performed in the following manner: The animal should be 
properly prepared by fasting and administration of a laxative 
twenty-four hours in advance. The operative field should be 
shaved and disinfected. Make an incision longitudinally 
over the enlargement through the skin and hernial sac. If 
no adhesions are present and the contents capable of being 
replaced this should be done at once. If adhesions are 
present preventing reduction they must be carefully broken 
down when the contents will return easily. Sometimes the 
bladder is encountered considerably distended with urine. 
If this is the case, introduce a trocar and draw" off the urine 
which facilitates replacement. When the gravid uterus is 
found in the sac it will be necessary to remove the fetuses 
in the usual manner and return the cornua to the abdominal 
cavity. After reduction has been brought about the hernial 
sac should be ligated as close to the cavity as possible and 
removed, pushing the stump into the cavity. Suture the 
ring by inserting the sutures close together, keeping away 
from the pudic veins. The extra skin which will be present 
should be properly trimmed off with the scissors and sutured. 
An antiseptic pack is applied, renewed daily, and kept in 
position until union is complete. The external sutures 
should be removed when the wound is healed. 

2. Inguinal and Scrotal Hernia in the Male. — Etiology.— 
Inguinal hernia is not as common in the male animal although 
it is met with occasionally. Dilatation of the inguinal canal 
from any cause will allow the intestines or omentum to pass 
through carrying a portion of the peritoneum with it forming 
an inguinal hernia. 

Scrotal hernia is far more common in the male animal. 
The hernial sac is formed by the processus vaginalis, and the 
contents consist of omentum or a loop of bowel protruding 
out into the scrotum in contact with the testicle. The 
hernia may be unilateral or bilateral. 

Syvrpfoms.—ln^u'nml hernia is characterized by an en- 
largement appearing to one side of the penis. It is usually 
soft, fluctuating, and reducible. The ring can be palpated 
in most cases. Occasionally some difficulty in diagnosis 
36 



562 HERNIA 

might be met with when adhesions are present. Explorative 
operation would be recommended. Scrotal hernia is recog- 
nized as an elongated enlargement in the scrotum. Palpa- 
tion will usually reveal the dilated canaland the contents 
can be easily returned to the abdominal cavity. Holding 
the animal up by the hind limbs often effects replacement. 
Differentiation should be made from other scrotal enlarge- 
ments. As a rule no particular difficulty will be encountered. 

Treatment.— In inguinal hernia the operation would be 
practically the same as in the female. The same care should 
be exercised to avoid complications. 

Scrotal hernia may be operated in two ways : (a) Inguinal 
operation, and (6) scrotal operation. 

(a) Inguinal Operation. — Prepare the dog the same as in 
the female. Make an incision through the skin over the 
inguinal canal down upon the internal ring. Open the 
processus vaginalis and pull the bowel or omentum back into 
the abdominal cavity. Suture the internal ring but allow 
sufficient room for the spermatic cord and vessels. A certain 
amount of swelling will take place after the operation which 
should be considered when applying the sutures. This 
operation is especially advised when the male is to be kept in 
the stud. 

(6) Scrotal Operation.— This operation is performed by 
opening the scrotum, removing the testicle, returning the 
omentum or bowel to the abdominal cavity, and suturing 
the external ring. Retaining sutures should be placed in the 
scrotum for a few days to avoid prolapsus of the bowel in 
case the other sutures tear out. 

Femoral Hernia.— This form of hernia is not common in 
small animals. It has been observed in a few instances. It 
consists in a portion of the viscera, in most cases intestine 
with peritoneum, which passes through the femoral canal in 
close proximity to the femoral vessels. 

Symptoms.— A soft enlargement is found on the inner part 
of the thigh which interferes with bringing the limb forward 
producing lameness. Unless strangulated there are no 
inflammatory symptoms. Any enlargement in this location 
should be suspected of being a femoral hernia. 



PERINEAL HERMA 563 

Treatment.— It is possible to reduce femoral hernia by the 
usual hernia operation but care should be taken to avoid 
the large vessels in the immediate vicinity. 

Diaphragmatic Hernia.— Definition.— A hernia taking place 
through the diaphragm. It may be either congenital or 
acquired. This hernia is characterized by the passage of a 
portion of the abdominal viscera into the thoracic cavity 
either with or without the peritoneum. 

Etiology.— Most cases of acquired diaphragmatic hernia 
occur as a result of violence in which the diaphragm ruptures 
allowing abdominal viscera to pass through the rent. Stran- 
gulation is rare. 

Symptoms.— No symptoms are observed. in most cases of 
congenital diaphragmatic hernia. In the acquired form the 
symptoms come on suddenly and consist of severe dyspnea^ 
restlessness, pain, etc. The patient as a rule does not live 
but a short time. A few cases have been observed where the 
patients lived for several months showing dyspnea and 
marked circulatory disturbance. A diagnosis is in most cases 
difficult. 

Treatment.— No treatment can be given. 

Perineal Hernia.— Definition.— A hernia appearing in both 
males and females and characterized by an enlargement on 
one or both sides of the anus. 

Etiology.— The perineal tissue is easily ruptured or torn 
allowing some of the abdominal organs or omentum to pro- 
trude at the sides of the rectum. Perineal hernia is often 
observed in trick dogs which are required to walk a great 
deal on their hind legs. The unnatural position and the 
pressure of the abdominal organs no doubt lead to rupture 
of the perineal tissue. It may also result from strain from 
coprostasis, prostatic enlargement, etc. Strangulation is 
rare in this form of hernia. In some cases torsion of the 
bladder accompanies it. 

Symptoms.— This hernia is recognized as an enlargement 
appearing at one or both sides of the rectum. The majority 
of cases are unilateral. The anus is pushed to one side and 
often there is difficulty in defecation. In the female the 
enlargement is usually slightly lower than in the male. 



564 HERNIA 

The consistency of the hernia will depend upon the con- 
tents. Perineal hernias are usually soft, easily reduced and 
the hernial ring readily palpated. Holding the patient up by 
the hind limbs often effects reduction. Should the bladder 
be in the hernial sac the patient will show dysuria and the 
enlargement feel cystic. A positive diagnosis can be made by 
puncturing the swelling with a trocar and obtaining some of 
the contents. A differential diagnosis is necessary between 
the hernia and enlargement of the anal pouches. A careful 
examination will reveal the difference between them. 

Treatment. — A careful consideration of the symptoms 
should be taken into account in order to determine definitely 
the conditions so that proper treatment can be applied. If 
the bladder is in the hernial sac replacement should be 
brought about as soon as possible. This may be done by 
carefully manipulating the parts, or if this fails open the 
hernial sac, empty the bladder with a fine trocar and push it 
back into the abdominal cavity. Insert the sutures rather 
deep in the tissues in order to effect deep adhesions. 

In the female, if the uterus is in the hernial sac, ventro- 
fixation is recommended. Many cases, when of ordinary 
size and no particular disturbance present, should not be 
treated. Castration is recommended when enlarged pros- 
tates are present. In some cases it may be necessary to 
remove the glands. 

Other hernias have been observed but they are so rare that 
no attempt will be made to describe them. 



PART XIV. 
INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 



CHAPTER I. 
ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 

DISTEMPER OF DOGS. 

Definition.— An acute, infectious, communicable disease 
which in most cases affects young dogs. 

Occurrence.— This is one of the most common diseases 
affecting dogs, and is known in every country where dogs 
are found. It is particularly a disease of young animals, 
the majority of dogs contracting it at some time during 
the first year of their lives. Whole litters of puppies, or 
all the animals in a kennel may become affected at one 
time. It occurs in districts as an enzootic. In cities it is 
more prevalent than in the open country. The season of 
the year has some influence on its prevalency and distribu- 
tion, the fall and winter months being most productive of 
the disease. Highly bred animals are more commonly 
affected than those bred by natural selection. 

Etiology.— There seems to be considerable difference of 
opinion in regard to the exact etiology of dog distemper. 
Some claim it to be produced by a specific microorganism 
(Bronchosepticus canis, Torrey, P^erry, McGowan), while 
others think it is due to a filtrable virus. In each case evi- 
dence has been produced which seems to substantiate 
the claim made. Two distinctive factors are recognized from 
a clinical standpoint: (a) A primary infectious agent which 



566 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

produces the marked initial symptoms of the disease, (h) 
Secondary organisms which produce many varied and serious 
compKcating conditions. A large number of organisms have 
been isolated from animals affected with distemper, but so 
far they have proved to be simply secondary invaders. 

Natural Infection.— Natural infection takes place in 
several ways. It may be either direct or indirect, the 
animals coming into immediate contact with each other, 
or through intermediary agents, the virus being taken into 
the digestive tract with the food or drink. There are a 
number of factors which tend to favor the development of 
the virus, such as influence of any kind which reduces the 
general resistance of the animal, in the way of poor food, 
insufficient food, colds, etc., or various diseased conditions 
interfering with the assimilation of food. Puppies with 
weak constitutions are especially susceptible. The develop- 
ment of the disease is ordinarily in animals from three 
months to one year of age. Older animals are very seldom 
affected and if so take the disease in a mild form. This 
may be explained by the immunity the dog possesses or by 
its having had the disease in a mild form. House dogs 
which have been pampered and petted, or those of the finer 
breeds are more susceptible, and usually take distemper in 
a more severe form. 

It has been determined quite conclusively that the specific 
virus produces an acute or peracute condition with a high 
temperature followed in a few days by secondary changes 
due to other bacteria resulting in various complications, 
such as occur in the skin (pustules), respiratory passages, 
digestive tract, nervous system, etc. 

Necropsy.— Owing to the variety of forms of distemper 
in dogs the lesions found on examination are of many kinds, 
varying with the complications due to secondary infection. 
In peracute and acute cases there will be effusions of fluid 
from the serous membranes particularly in the pericardial 
sac, the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Small hemor- 
rhages are observed in some of the organs (heart, liver 
and kidneys). In most cases of distemper the lungs will be 
affected, either as a capillary bronchitis, congestion or 



DISTEMPER OF DOGS 567 

bronchopneumonia. The pleura is usually congested and 
sometimes covered with fibrinous deposits. 

The intestinal tract shows marked changes, in most cases 
a catarrhal inflammation, which may be primarily in the 
stomach, or involving the entire tract. The glands in the 
mucosa are swollen. Erosions and ulcerations are fre- 
quently noted in the subacute or chronic forms. The 
lymph glands of the mesentery are enlarged and edematous. 
The liver is usually congested, or inflamed, frequently show- 
ing degenerative changes. The kidneys are enlarged, the 
capsule easily removed and the cortex markedly changed. 

The central nervous system is often involved and there 
will be found congestion of the membranes and the cortex 
of the brain. Small hemorrhages will be observed in some 
cases. Other pathological changes of a minor character 
are noted, such as conjunctivitis, keratitis and more rarely 
panophthalmitis. Pustules in the skin are common. 

Symptoms.— There is quite a variation in the symptoma- 
tology depending upon the form which the disease takes. 
The most prominent manifestations are those of an infectious 
catarrh, involving the membranes of the eye, the respiratory 
and digestive systems. The catarrhal symptoms are often 
complicated with those of severe disturbance of the brain 
and cord, pustular eruptions on the skin, and very frequently 
bronchopneumonia. For clearness in the description of 
the symptoms it is best to consider them under the following 
headings, depending upon the part affected: 

1 . Initial Symptoms. —The period of incubation is usually 
from three to five days. This period will vary consider- 
ably, depending upon various factors. Some few cases have 
been known to develop the disease in two to three days, 
while in others it required two to three weeks. The peracute 
type of distemper is ushered in by marked constitutional 
disturbances, such as great depression, fatigue, total loss of 
appetite, a very high temperature (106°-107° F.) which in 
the course of several hours drops to normal, and later to sub- 
normal. This form of the disease takes a very rapid course, 
the animal soon passing into a comatose state. 



568 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

The acute form usually begins with a rather high tem- 
perature (103°-106° F.) and remains elevated for several 
days or weeks. Some cases show a marked variation in 
temperature, beginning with a high temperature which in 
a few days drops to normal or in some cases subnormal 
where it remains until either recovery or death takes place. 
In some cases due to complications the fever is remittent. 
The owner will notice in the inception of the disease a 
change in the disposition of the animal. Instead of being 
lively it will be stupid, does not answer the call or obey 
commands given it. The hair coat becomes rough, quickly 
loses its gloss and the animal in general shows a dejected 
appearance. On examination of the nose, it will be found 
hot and dry; the mucosa becoming irritated induces rather 
violent sneezing. After one or two days more pronounced 
symptoms make their appearance. 

2. Symptoms Shown by the Eyes.— In a large number of 
cases conjunctivitis is a prominent symptom. In the 
early stages it begins as a serous conjunctivitis, which soon 
becomes purulent from secondar}^ infection. The discharge 
from the eyes consists of a thick mucus, or whitish or yellow- 
ish pus. This discharge is usually found collecting chiefly 
at the inner canthus of the eye, soiling the edges of the 
eyelids, or from the exudate drying, crusts form causing the 
eyelids to adhere. Usually in a few days lesions and ulcers 
appear on the cornea as a result of the irritant exudate, the 
patient rubbing its eyes or pawing them with the forefeet, 
or by the swelling which interferes with local nutrition. 
These ulcers are usually small, pin-point, funnel-shaped and 
extend downward in a straight direction; their base usually 
covered with a pus-like material. They heal by a prolifera- 
tion of vessels from the edges of the cornea. In some cases 
the ulcei:ation leads to partial perforation of the cornea, 
with a protrusion of the Descemet's membrane, prolapsus 
of the iris (staphyloma). The resulting cicatrization causes 
permanent white spots on the cornea (leukoma). In other 
cases the entire cornea becomes opaque (parenchymatous 
keratitis) which gives the eyes the appearance of ground 
glass. Rarely does the entire eyeball become inflamed 



DISTEMPER OF DOGS 569 

(panophthalmitis). Opacity of the cornea in a number of 
cases remains for weeks and even months. 

3. Symptoms Shoicn by the Digestive Trad. — Vomiting is 
an early symptom in a large number of cases. The vomitus 
often consists of particles of food, frothy mucus stained 
with bile in cases where the vomiting is persistent. The 
mucous membrane of the mouth is hot, dry and congested. 
The animal drinks freely indicating the involvement of 
the mucosa of the stomach and bowels. Constipation is 
invariably the rule during the early stages of the disease, 
followed by diarrhea in the course of a day or so. The 
feces in the latter case are very fetid, often shiny, frothy 
and even bloody indicating hemorrhagic intestinal catarrh. 
The intensity of the gastro-intestinal symptoms varies from 
mild catarrh to a severe hemorrhagic gastro-enteritis. 
Symptoms of icterus are present in some cases due to the 
catarrhal duodenitis (catarrhal icterus). 

4. Symptoms in the Respiratory Tract. — During the early 
stages of the disease the nose becomes dry and hot. There 
is nasal discharge which is at first serous but later thicker 
and mucopurulent in character. During the early stages 
there is much sneezing and sniffling due to the attending 
rhinitis. The dog show^s much distress and makes frequent 
attempts to clear the nasal passages by sudden expiratory 
efforts, rubbing the nose against objects and clawing at the 
nasal openings with the forepaws. The discharge accu- 
mulates around the nasal openings in the form of crusts; 
when these are removed the skin and mucosa often show 
excoriations. In severe cases the discharge is often so 
copious that the nostrils will be found partially or completely 
occluded. 

Catarrh of the larynx is nearly always associated with 
this condition and is manifested by a cough, which usually 
occurs in paroxysms; it is at first dry and harsh, and later 
becomes moist and considerable mucus is coughed up, which 
is immediatel\' swallowed by the animal. These paroxysms 
of coughing frequently end in gagging and vomiting. The 
catarrhal inflammation spreads quite rapidly to the tracheal 
and bronchi. The resulting bronchitis causes a cough, which 



570 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

is deep and explosive. The respirations are accelerated. 
Auscultation reveals coarse, sharp vesicular murmurs, and 
rhonchi. As the inflammation proceeds it involves the 
bronchioli (capillary bronchitis) which produces increased, 
labored respirations. At this stage there is usually a feeble 
harassing cough, most noticeable when the dog is made to 
move, or if the thorax is manipulated. The auscultatory 
sounds become increased, and there will be noted dry or 
moist, crackling, or fine rales. In very weak, or young 
dogs, in which the exudation accumulates in the bronchioli, 
it is very sure to produce a bronchopneumonia on account 
of the secretions being drawn into the alveoli. The result- 
ing pneumonia will be recognized by: (a) The great increase 
in the temperature; (b) the excessive dyspnea (inflation of 
cheeks at each expiration) ; (c) the sitting posture of animals 
with elbows spread apart to facilitate respiration; (d) irregu- 
lar vesicular murmur; {e) irregular dulness and tympany on 
percussion; (/) the bronchial breathing which will be audible. 
The cough at this stage becomes very dull and weak. The 
nasal discharge becomes very fetid, and often has a greenish 
cast. During the last stages as the heart becomes weak, 
symptoms of edema of the lungs appear in the form of 
severe dyspnea, and bubbling rhonchi. 

5. Symytoms Shoivn by the Nervous System. — This disease 
in practically all cases is accompanied by some nervous 
phenomena. It often begins, especially in weak individuals, 
with marked dulness and depression. These symptoms 
may be all that the animal will show. However, in a great 
many cases, the nervous symptoms develop early in the 
course of the disease, and are manifested by excitement, 
restlessness, yelping, cries, even simulating some of the 
symptoms of furious rabies. In many instances tremors 
of muscles, tonic and clonic spasms, which may involve 
certain groups of muscles or the entire muscular system 
are observed. Local spasms and twitchings of the muscles 
are frequently observed involving the muscles of the face, 
over the region of the head and neck. The masseter muscles 
are frequently affected, resulting in chattering teeth and 
foaming at the mouth. Spasms of the muscles of the neck 



" DISTEMPER OF DOGS 571 

and limbs cause regular or irregular movement of the head 
or limbs. These movements may be present constantly or 
periodically. Convulsive contractions of certain groups of 
muscles are frequently observed, in which the animal at 
first becomes restless, excited, runs aimlessly about, is sud- 
denly seized by tonic and clonic spasms, the head and 
neck usually drawn backward, falls down as if from epilepsy, 
barks, cries and becomes unconscious with relaxation of 
the sphincter muscles. In some cases the animal will die 
during these convulsions; in others there is a gradual return 
to consciousness and in one or two minutes the animal 
is able to rise. Some cases pass into a long-continued state 
of coma. These convulsive seizures may become less fre- 
quent, and entirely disappear; or they may terminate in 
partial or complete paralysis. Paralysis is a very common 
sequel to this disease. It very rarely begins at the onset of 
the disease, but appears in most cases during the latter 
period. The paralysis may be confined to certain groups 
of muscles, in fact the posterior limbs are most often affected. 
The paralysis of the sphincter muscles is a very frequent 
sequel. Some cases begin with a paralysis of the posterior 
limbs, and result subsequently in complete recovery, while 
others show a progressive ascending paralysis, resulting in 
death from general paralysis. Various paralytic compli- 
cations are often observed following the nervous form of 
distemper, such as deafness, amaurosis, hemiplegia lar^^ngis, 
aphasia, loss of sense of smell, hydrocephalus, etc. 

6. Symptoms Shown hy the Skin. ~ln a large number of 
cases there will be noted a characteristic pustular exanthema. 
Small, red spots appear along on the abdomen, on the inner 
surface of the thighs, occasionally on the skin of the face, 
around the eyes and on the internal surface of the external 
ear. In twenty-four to thirty-six hours these red spots are 
transformed into miliary nodules, each surrounded by a 
red ring. These nodules change very rapidly into vesicles 
which become infected to form pustules. The pustules vary 
but are usually the size of a pea. They dry up either into 
a yellow, brown crust, or rupture and leave reddened, moist 
places to become covered . later by a scab. ^Yhen the 



572 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

pustular eruption becomes extensive the body gives off a 
peculiar, offensive, sweetish odor. Healing of the pustules 
takes place usually in about six to eight days, leaA^ng bright 
pigmented, reddish spots, which remain for several weeks. 
In some cases the pustular form of distemper may spread, 
the pustules become confluent, forming a scabby eczema, 
which may be localized around the eyes, over the abdomen, 
or thighs, or it may be general over the entire body. Com- 
plications, such as septicemia and septicopyemia develop 
occasionally from this form of the disease. ^Mien the 
pustular eruption forms around the margin of the lips, it 
often spreads rapidly to the mucosa producing a severe 
gangrenous stomatitis. Involvement of the external ear 
in the form of an otitis is observed in a large number of 
cases. This is characterized by a thin fluid secretion, which 
accumulates on the surface of the ear, dries and forms a 
yellowish-brown crust or scales. 

7. General Syviptovis. —The initial high temperature is 
usually followed by a remittent or subnormal temperature. 
Some cases do not show much abnormality in temperature. 
Normal temperature in this disease, when other marked 
symptoms are present, does not always indicate a favorable 
termination. As the disease progresses the animal becomes 
emaciated, weak, and the action of the heart is more or less 
disturbed, depending upon the severity of the case. The 
mucous membranes are pale, the patient becomes very 
weak, staggers or retains a recumbent position. 

Diagnosis.— During the early stages of distemper it pre- 
sents some difficulty. It becomes necessary to decide 
whether we have distemper to deal with, or the beginning 
of some other condition, such as catarrhal inflammation of 
the eyes, nose, lungs, stomach or bowels. An accurate 
diagnosis cannot always be made during the early stages of 
the disease. Just as soon, however, as there appear symp- 
toms of general depression, high temperature, the implica- 
tion of several organs, especially in a young dog, distemper 
should be suspected. Should skin pustules be present they 
will assist materially in making the diagnosis. 

In catarrhal inflammation of the bowels there is usualh' 



DISTEMPER OF DOGS 573 

very little rise in temperature, and catarrhal symptoms of 
the eyes, nose, etc., fail. The symptoms of cerebral irri- 
tation sometimes found in distemper make it necessary to 
differentiate it from rabies. The characteristic aggressive 
tendency of animals with rabies, the change in the voice, 
the facial expression, and the absence of catarrhal symptoms 
usually make the differentiation easy. The eruption on the 
skin might be confused with mange, but negative results on 
microscopic examination would at once show the difference. 
There should be but little difficulty experienced in diifer- 
entiating it from eczema as the lesions and their location 
differ and the other symptoms of distemper usually present. 
The convulsions occurring in the nervous form of distemper 
are distinguished from those of epilepsy by the acute char- 
acter, occurring at frequent intervals, and the local muscular 
twitchings, which occur even between the convulsive attacks. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is not favorable, even in the 
milder forms of the disease. Owing to the variety of forms 
the disease assumes, and the frequent complications, the 
mortality is high, amounting to approximately 50 per cent. 
The prognosis depends to a certain extent upon the type of 
the disease, and whether or not the animal is strong and 
vigorous. The purely exanthematous form is most favor- 
able. If the disease confines itself to this form the majority 
of the cases will completely recover in two to three weeks. 

The catarrhal forms, involving the respiratory or digestive 
systems, are less favorable owing to serious complications 
which attend them. 

The highest mortality occurs when the nervous system 
is involved. When severe nervous phenomena are present 
the prognosis is bad, only 5 to 10 per cent, recovering. 
Where there is a continuous, high temperature the prog- 
nosis is not favorable as there is danger of heart compli- 
cations. A rapid fall in temperature to below normal is 
also a grave sign; in most cases it in(hcates the approach 
of death. 

Treatment.— y>?V/r//r'. — It is very essential in (listen"i]:)er to 
supply the patient with easily digested, nourishing food. 
Perhaps the best food is raw meat chopped fine, or scraped 



574 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

into a pulp. Patients will be tempted by this food when 
they will not eat anything else. In cases where the appe- 
tite is lost, and in order to maintain the animal's strength, 
beef broth is most excellent. This may be given with 
warm milk, or milk with an egg beaten up in it. Other 
foodstuffs may be given, depending upon the progress of the 
case, and the needs of the patient. In the digestive form 
of the disease only small amounts of liquid foods should be 
given via the mouth. Rectal feeding with warm milk and 
meat broth is recommended in these cases. 

Hygienic— The animal must be well protected from expos- 
ure to extremes in temperature, or cold draughts of air. 
They should be placed in a clean, moderately warm well- 
ventilated room. The bedding should be kept clean at all 
times. Supply plenty of fresh water. 

Medical— Owing to the various complications the medical 
treatment must be essentially symptomatic. During the 
early stages of the disease calomal (0.075-0.10) is recom- 
mended as a purgative and bowel disinfectant. This dose 
may be repeated in twenty-four hours if necessary. To 
overcome the general depression, which is an early sjnnptom, 
nerve stimulants, alcohol, aromatic spirits ammonia, nux 
vomica tincture (0.4-0.7), anyone of which should be given 
well diluted, and repeated as the case demands. As an 
abortive treatment subcutaneous injections of trichlorid of 
iodin (3 or 4 times daily, 2-4 c.c. of a solution of 1-1000) 
have been used with very good results. This treatment 
when given early in the course of the disease has a very 
beneficial effect in regulating the temperature. The patients 
seem brighter, and the catarrhal symptoms diminished. 
The injections should be made at different points owing to 
the danger of skin necrosis. Further medical treatment 
will vary depending upon the part affected. 

(a) When the disease involves the eyes, they should be 
washed with an antiseptic once or twice daily, boric acid 
(2 per cent.), creolin (1.5 per cent.), to prevent undue 
injury to the cornea and other structures from the infection. ■ 
In obstinate cases with excessive pus formation and dis- 
charge, silver nitrate solution (0.5 to 1 per cent.) has been 
found very efficacious. When there is extensive parenchy- 



DISTEMPER OF DOGS 575 

matous keratitis solution of stovain (1 to 2 per cent.) is 
useful to prevent irritation and subsequent injury to the 
eyes from rubbing them against objects, or with the paws. 
Opacities of the cornea when of some standing may be 
treated with a silver nitrate solution (2 per cent.), followed 
by a normal salt solution as a wash, or succus cineraria 
maratima compositus (0.4-0.7) dropped into the eye 
daily. This latter preparation has proved to be of great 
value in the eye complications of distemper. 

(h) The respiratory system should be treated by remov- 
ing the secretions from the nasal openings, spraying the 
nasal passages with creolin (2 per cent.), or silver nitrate 
solution (0.25 per cent.). Warm vapors, such as steam, or 
solutions containing alkalies (bicarbonate of sodium) given 
as inhalations are highly recommended. When there is a 
painful, dry, harsh cough the following formula is very 
beneficial : 

I^ — Morphinii sulphatis 0.15 

Aqua amygdalae amarse 12.00 

Aqua dest 150.00 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful once or twice daily. 

In the presence of profuse secretions, sedatives are contra- 
indicated. Instead ammonium chlorid (0.1-0.5) is given as 
an expectorant twice daily to dissolve the mucus and other 
secretions. If symptoms of pneumonia are present, counter- 
irritation to the thoracic walls with oil of mustard and 
glycerin (1-20). Heart stimulants are also advised. (See 
Treatment of Bronchopneumonia.) 

(c) The digestive complications are treated according to 
the conditions found. If the animal is constipated it should 
be relieved by the administration of a purgative; if severe 
diarrhea is present the irritating bowel contents are first 
removed by a laxative followed by astringents and sedatives. 
The following formula will be found beneficial in the latter 
condition : 

I^ — Tincturffi opii 10.0 

Gummii acacise 8.0 

Aquffi foeniculi 250.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful two or three times daily. 



576 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

As a bowel disinfectant use small doses of salol (0.2-0.5) 
twice daily. If vomiting is persistent it must be controlled 
with cold water containing soda (2 per cent.), salicylate of 
bismuth (0.3), or in extreme cases by small doses of opium 
(0.05-0.15). 

(d) For the stimulation of the digestion small doses of 
hydrochloric acid (0.1-0.5) diluted in water and pepsin 
(0.075-0.5) is the best treatment. It is advisable to stimu- 
late the mucosa further with tincture of gentian (0.05-0.9), 
or tincture of nux vomica (0.4-0.7) given once daily. Fluid 
extract of echinacese (0.5-1.0) is also used. 

(e) When nervous symptoms are present, it is important 
that they be controlled by anodynes and sedatives (mor- 
phin 0.03-0.09, or sodium or potassium bromid 1-150 in 
water) given in teaspoonful doses four to six times daily. 
Some cases, when spasms and convulsions are severe, will 
require maximum doses to control them. ' When paralysis is 
present, electricity is highly recommended, also strychnin 
(0.001) once or twice daily. Subcutaneous injections of 
veratrin (0.01-0.05) are sometimes used. 

(/) The temperature in this disease is rarely treated, and 
only in exceptional cases where a very high temperature 
remains for several days and threatens to become dangerous 
to the heart, would it be advisable to use antipyretics. 
Phenacetin, acetanilid (0.25-0.50) may be used for this purpose. 

(g) In the skin form, when pustules are present, they 
should be opened, and washed with creolin (2 per cent.). 
For the exanthema the skin should be washed with an anti- 
septic soap (germicidal, or tar soap), dried, and a drying 
powder or zinc oxid ointment applied. The latter is prefer- 
able. 

Sera and Vaccines. — This disease has been treated quite 
extensively during the past two or three years with vaccines 
and sera. Good results have been obtained by their use 
by some, others have reported less favorably. The great 
advantage no doubt in the use of these preparations is to 
control the secondary infection which produces the com- 
plicating conditions. Varying degrees of immunity have 
been claimed by the use of vaccines. 



DISTEMPER OF CATS oil 

Prevention.— Animals with distemper should be isolated 
and kept from healthy young dogs. Thorough disinfection 
of all utensils, bedding, rooms, etc., should be attended to 
promptly. 

Preventive inoculation has proved of value in a large 
number of cases and is highly recommended. 

DISTEMPER OF CATS. 

Definition.— An acute contagio-infectious disease found 
more commonly in young cats. Older animals are less often 
affected, probably due to either an acquired immunity (hav- 
ing had the disease in a mild form) or to a greater natural 
resistance against the infection. The disease in cats is not 
nearly so common as in dogs. 

Etiology.— According to the best information obtainable 
it is produced by the same causes as canine distemper. 

Pathology.— The pathological lesions are principally those 
found in canine distemper, except that the disease seems 
to be confined mainly to the respiratory and digestive 
tracts. In the respiratory form there is an inflammation 
involving the nasal passages (rhinitis), larynx (laryngitis), 
the bronchi and bronchioli (capillarv^ bronchitis), and the 
lungs (bronchopneumonia). The digestive tract shows 
catarrhal inflammation. The mucosa is covered with a 
heavy mucous exudate which in some cases is mixed with 
blood (hemorrhagic catarrhal gastro-enteritis) . Some of the 
other organs (kidneys, liver and heart) show degenerative 
changes. 

Symptoms.— The initial symptoms are those of inappe- 
tence, depression, vomiting in some cases and moderately 
high temperature (1()3°-104° F.). When the respiratory 
passages are primarily aft'ected the animal will sneeze fre- 
quently, there is a discharge from the nose which is at 
first thin, but later becomes thicker and glutinous. This 
will collect around the nasal openings and in some cases 
occlude them completely. 

Conjunctivitis is a very prominent symptoxn. At first 
the discharge is serous, but later it becomes mucopurulent. 
37 



578 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

The cornea often presents the characteristic changes noted 
in dog distemper. The bowel form is observed frequently, 
and is characterized by vomiting, abdominal pain and later 
severe diarrhea. The animal becomes emaciated, there is 
marked weakness and a fall in temperature, which often 
becomes subnormal. Convulsions and other nervous phe- 
nomena are not commonly observed. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis depends upon the existence of 
catarrhal symptoms involving the eyes and nose, the tem- 
perature and the rapid emaciation and weakness. A 
differential diagnosis should be made from hemorrhagic 
septicemia. In this disease no catarrhal symptoms are 
present, as a rule, but there is marked gastro-enteritis, and 
the course is peracute. The mortality in hemorrhagic 
septicemia is much higher. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is bad. The mortality, how- 
ever, is lower in cats than in dogs. The catarrhal form 
involving the eyes, nasal passages and lungs is more favorable 
than the bowel form. 

TTea,Xmeiit.— Hygienic. — The animal should be kept in a 
moderately warm place, free from draughts of air. The 
room should be well ventilated, and every precaution taken 
to prevent unnecessary exposure. 

Dietetic— The appetite can be tempted by offering small 
amounts of fresh lean meat, or liver at frequent intervals. 
Milk should be allowed in small quantities. In case the 
animal refuses food, it is advisable to give small quantities 
of beef broth, or warm milk to maintain strength. 

Medical.— A laxative is given at the onset of the disease 
(castor oil 4.0-12.0, or sulphur in milk 1.0-2.0). The eyes 
should be cleansed daily with boric acid solution (2 per 
cent.) to control the blennorrhea. The nasal passages can be 
cleansed with a similar antiseptic solution. Small doses of 
opium (tincture of opium 0.10-0.15) are often beneficial in 
preventing the spread of the inflammation in the stomach 
and bowels and to control the diarrhea. Sulphocarbolate 
tablets are to be recommended as a bowel disinfectant 
(0.1-0.2). When pneumonia threatens inhalations of warm 
medicated solutions are valuable. Atropin sulphate (0.003) 



TYPHUS OF DOGS 579 

is useful to sustain the heart action. Good care and nour- 
ishing food plays a ^'ery important role in the treatment of 
cat distemper. 

TYPHUS OF DOGS. 

Canine Typhus. Hemorrhagic G astro-enteritis. 
Dog Plague. Black Tongue. 

Definition. —An acute, infectious disease occurring in an 
epizootic form, characterized by a severe gastro-enteritis, 
stomatitis, and in some cases severe nervous symptoms. 

Occurrence.— During the past few years this disease has 
appeared as an epizootic in various sections of the United 
States, producing extensive losses, particularly in old dogs. 
In some districts it has made the breeding and handling of 
dogs prohibitive. The disease has been disseminated by dog 
shows, and follows in the wake of such exhibitions. 

Etiology.— The nature of the disease indicates that it is 
produced by some specific infection. Up to the present 
time the infectious agent has not been isolated. Experi- 
mental inoculations with various organisms, which have 
been isolated, have not proved that any of them are con- 
stant in reproducing the disease in healthy animals. In a 
number of outbreaks in this country, old dogs were as com- 
monly affected as young. Further, dogs which have had 
distemper severely come down with this disease in a severe 
form. The breed, or sex of the animal seems to have noth- 
ing to do with its susceptibility. The infectious agent is 
probably taken in with the food or drink. The disease is 
spread by cohabitation, or by the infection being carried 
by intermediate agents. The period of incubation is from 
three to five days. 

Pathology.— The autopsy in this disease presents a rather 
constant picture. The digestive tract is mainly involved. 
The mucosa of the mouth is often inflamed; ulcers are 
found in a number of cases, particularly noticeable along the 
rnargin of gums. In some cases extensive necrosis of the 
buccal mucosa is found. The tongue is frequently thick- 



580 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

ened, swollen and dark red or bluish in color. In the 
stomach the lesions are very prominent, and consist of an 
intense inflammatory condition. The mucosa is dark red, 
or almost black, corrugated and at the apex of the corru- 
gations the membrane is eroded. 

Hemorrhages take place in the membrane and give it a 
more or less mottled appearance. Some cases present 
extensive hemorrhages over the entire membrane. The 
surface of the mucosa is covered by a mucus of a dark 
brown, or chocolate color, which can be readily scraped 
off. The contents of the stomach have a peculiar offensive 
odor. The intestines show similar changes, but in most 
cases not so extensive. The cecum and small intestines 
show the most prominent lesions. The peritoneum covering 
the bowels is congested and the mesenteric Ijonph glands are 
enlarged. The spleen is often much enlarged and shows 
evidence of acute inflammation. ■ The liver and some of 
the other organs are hyperemic. The lungs in most cases 
do not show much on examination. They are usually 
slightly congested, and edematous. The heart is pale in 
color and very friable. The brain and its membranes may 
be markedly hyperemic, or show but slight change. The 
lesions found on autopsy are indicative of a more or less 
intense gastro-enteritis. 

Symptoms.— The initial symptom, which is quite constant, 
is a very persistent vomiting. The vomitus at first con- 
sists of food particles; later mostly mucus mixed with blood 
and bile. The attacks of vomiting often begin without 
any previous indication of illness, and suddenly become very 
severe, producing in a short time marked weakness and 
prostration. The appetite is lost; there is rapid exhaustion 
and staggering gait. The progress of the disease is quite 
rapid. Frequently in one to three days it has reached its 
characteristic form. Examination of the mouth reveals more 
or less extensive lesions of the mucous membrane. Along 
the margin of the gums will be noticed degenerative or 
necrotic changes, ulcers and at the margins of the lips there 
will be present the characteristic chocolate-colored discharge. 
The tongue will be affected; it is sometimes partially or 



TYPHUS OF DOGS 581 

completely paralyzed, swollen and of darkbluish color. A 
very unpleasant, peculiar odor is emitted from the mouth. 
As the disease progresses, the degenerative and necrotic 
processes continue until in many cases the ulcers become 
confluent, forming extensive ulcerative surfaces. The tongue 
usually in the later stages is dry, chapped, loses its sensitive- 
ness, and becomes necrotic or gangrenous. Necrosis of the 
lip is observed in some cases, usually most prominent at 
the commissures of the mouth. Palpation over the region 
of the stomach, which often induces vomiting, produces 
marked pain. Manipulation of the bowels is also painful in 
most cases. Constipation is present during the early period 
of the disease to be followed later by diarrhea. The dis- 
charges from the bowels are mixed or streaked with blood, 
and emit a very offensive odor. The mucous membrane of 
the rectum is inflamed and shows degenerative changes. 
The conjunctiva shows similar discoloration to that of the 
mouth (brownish-red), strongly injected, but the absence of 
a purulent discharge. The temperature does not rise, as 
a rule, at any stage of the disease. With the appearance 
of depression and coma the« temperature falls rapidly to 
subnormal, the rule in this disease. There is no cough 
and in most cases no indication of lung involvement until 
the later stages of the disease, when in some cases acute 
edema, or a foreign body pneumonia producing dyspnea 
develops. The urinary secretion is nearly always dimin- 
ished or suppressed. Nervous symptoms of excitement and 
convulsions are occasionally observed, but in most cases 
somnolence, lassitude and coma are characteristic. Modi- 
fication of these symptoms may be found, depending upon 
the severity of the condition. 

Diagnosis. —There are some very characteristic symp- 
toms which materially assist in establishing a diagnosis— 
the sudden and persistent vomiting, the inappetence, the 
presence of ulcerations on the mucous membranes of the 
mouth, the great depression, the character of the vomitus, 
the characteristic injection of the conjunctiva, and the 
normal or subnormal temperature. A difl'erential diagnosis^ 
must be made from canine distemper. In canine distemper 



582 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

there are invariably present the characteristic catarrhal 
symptoms involving the eyes and nasal passages. The 
period of incubation is usually longer in distemper, five to 
nine days. Further, distemper is more common in young 
animals, and the course of the disease is acute. This disease 
must also be differentiated from ptomain and other poison- 
ings. In some cases this is quite difficult, owing to the 
close similarity of the symptoms, gastro-enteritis appearing 
in both conditions. The necrosis of the membranes and 
ulcers are absent in ptomain poisoning, and in the majority 
of mineral poisonings. The development of the disease is 
different from ptomain, or other poisonings. Canine typhus 
usually appears as an epizootic which would assist in estab- 
lishing a diagnosis. Differentiation between this disease and 
ulcerative stomatitis should present no great difficulties. The 
absence of the general depression, vomiting and gastro- 
enteritis in ulcerative stomatitis is indicative. Scorbutus 
develops slowly, and is attended by neither vomiting nor 
general symptoms. 

Course.— The average duration of the disease is four to 
six days; in milder cases often twelve to fourteen days. A 
few cases run a much more rapid course followed by death in 
one to three days. At the beginning of an outbreak it 
seems to run a more rapid course than later. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable; the mortality 
from 50 to 75 per cent. Young animals suffer less severely 
than older ones. When the disease develops gradually, 
indicating low virulence of the infection, or high resistance 
on the part of the animal, the prognosis is more favorable; 
on the other hand when the development of the disease 
is rapid and the symptoms prominent, the outlook is grave. 
In some cases recovery takes place quite rapidly, and when 
this does occur there is usually no complication, and even 
the ulcerative processes disappear completely. 

Treatment.— Z)^efe/^c.— During the early stages of the dis- 
ease, no food should be given. After the acute symptoms 
have begun to subside and the animal reaches the con- 
valescent stage, nutritious food can be allowed. Meat 
broth would be most applicable as the sensitive mucous 



PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA OF DOGS 583 

membrane of the stomach would not retain solid food. 
Later small amounts of meat chopped fine could be given. 
Should it be impossible for the animal to retain food in 
the stomach, rectal feeding is advisable, using concentrated 
meat broth warmed to the body temperature. This should 
be injected high up in the rectum, small amounts given every 
three or four hours. 

Medical— At the onset of the disease, when vomiting is 
severe and persistent, it would be best to wash the stomach 
with sodium bicarbonate solution (2 per cent.). This may 
be repeated in ten to twelve hours. To allay vomiting, 
sedatives (morphin subcutaneously, 0.016-0.12), or small 
amounts of cold water at frequent intervals are useful. 
Hot packs applied to the epigastrium are beneficial. Rectal 
injections of warm water, or even washing the entire ali- 
mentary tract with sodium bicarbonate solution (2 per cent.) 
when diarrhea is present, will remove irritating material 
and infection. In obstipation, warm rectal infusions may 
be used in preference to laxatives or purgatives. Ichthargan 
has been highly recommended for typhus in the following 
formula : 

^ — Ichthargan, 

Gummi arabicae aa 20.0 

Aquse chloroformi 60.0 

Misce et fiat mist. 

Sig. — Give teaspoonful every three or four hours. 

Stimulants (atropin sulphate, 0.075-0.15 subcutaneously) 
to sustain the heart action and to overcome the general 
depression would be advised. The mucous membrane of 
the mouth should be washed at least twice daily with boric 
acid solution (2 per cent.); potassium permanganate (0.25 
per cent.), or therapogen (2 per cent.). The animal should 
be well protected in a quiet place. In a great many cases 
the treatment has proved unsatisfactory owing to the per- 
acute course it often assumes. 

PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA OF DOGS. 

This disease has been observed in dogs, but as it is very 
rare it will not be described here. (See other works.) 



584 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



FOWL CHOLERA. 

Cholera Gallinarum. Pasteur ellosis Avium. Fowl 

Typhoid, 

Definition.— This is an acute contagious disease of fowls, 
usually occurring in an epizootic form, and affecting par- 
ticularly chickens, geese, pigeons, ducks, quail, sparrows and 
pheasants. It is characterized by a general infection, and 
the prominent symptom of diarrhea. 

Occurrence.— Fowl cholera is found in most sections of 
the United States, causing extensive losses to poultrymen. 
The finer breeds of fowls seem to be more susceptible to 
infection, probably because of exposure to the disease at 
poultry shows and other public exhibitions. It occurs as 
an epizootic, sometimes destroying entire flocks. The losses 
are serious from an economic standpoint. The monetary 
loss, which is great when a large number of birds die ; the 
loss in egg production, and the interference with breeding 
operations make fowl cholera a formidable disease. The 
disease often spreads over a large area, producing enormous 
losses. 

Etiology.— It is produced by the Bacillus avisepticus (bipo- 
laris). This bacillus is one of the smallest bipolar organisms. 

Pathogenesis.— The transmission of the disease from one 
bird to another is very easy. Directly inoculating the 
blood from a sick fowl to a healthy one by scarifying the 
skin or membranes, produces the disease in practically 
every attempt. Subcutaneous and intramuscular inocu- 
lations bring similar results. Inoculations with the infected 
blood of any of the birds into other species will produce 
the disease. Instillation of the infection into the con- 
junctival sac of fowls produces the disease. Feeding 
infected meat to other fowls, or cultures of the organism 
will in the majority of cases result in the bird coming down 
with the disease. Other animals— guinea pigs, mice and 
rats— are susceptible to the disease by inoculation with 



FOWL CHOLERA 585 

the infected blood or with cultures of the organism. Some 
of the domesticated animals are susceptible to intravenous 
injections of highly virulent cultures of the organism. The 
disease is not produced in dogs, cats or hogs from eating the 
infected meat of fowls. The virulence of the organism may 
be increased by repeatedly passing it through chickens, 
guinea pigs, pigeons or sparrows. The organism may be 
attenuated by subjecting it to sunlight, drying and exposure 
to the air. The attenuation may be sufficient to prevent 
further spread of the disease. 

Natural Infection.— Natural infection may take place in 
numerous ways: (a) The droppings of fowls contaminate 
the feed and water given other fowls and the infection is 
thus introduced immediately into the digestive tract. 

(b) In most cases the flock is infected through newly 
acquired cholera-sick birds, or birds returned from shows 
or exhibitions where they have been in contact with the 
infection. 

(c) Pigeons and sparrows play an important part in the 
dissemination of cholera, by carrying the infection from 
flock to flock. This accounts for isolated outbreaks of the 
disease where no exchange of birds has taken place. 

(d) The infection is frequently carried on clothing, shoes 
and other objects. 

(e) It may be spread by carelessness in disinfecting cars 
in which cases have been transported. This has proved to 
be the source of infection in a number of instances. 

(/) Eggs have been the carriers of the infection in some 
few cases reported. 

The infection in most cases is taken directly in the 
digestive tract with the food or drink. The bacilli pene- 
trate the mucous membrane and enter the lymph spaces of 
the walls of the intestines. They are soon taken into the 
circulation where they multiply very rapidly. In some 
cases when the infection is introduced into wounds it is 
taken into the circulation more promptly, and consequently 
the course of the disease is more rapid. Death results in 
these cases no doubt from the large amount of toxins formed. 



586 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Pathology.— The most pronounced pathological changes 
are found in the intestines, heart and lungs. In the acute 
form the following lesions are found: 

(a) The intestines show marked pathological changes. 
The mucous membrane throughout the entire tract is 
highly congested and covered in numerous places with 
darker areas. The intestines contain a thin, watery, 
frothy, mucopurulent and yellow exudate often mixed with 
blood and bile giving them a dark greenish tinge. Defects 
in the mucosa are often present, the apex of the intestinal 
villi are often eroded, and in some cases croupous exudate 
is present, in others ulceration. All of these changes in 
the mucosa may be observed in the same case. The mucous 
membranes of the pharynx, crop, colon and rectum show the 
most pronounced lesions. The mesenteric lymph glands 
are nearly always enlarged, edematous and show numerous 
petechise. 

(b) The heart shows, as a rule, distinctive changes. It 
is covered with small, dark red, pin-point dots, and the 
bloodvessels congested. The epicardium is often covered 
by a fine fibrinous membrane. The pericardial fluid is 
nearly always cloudy, containing some fibrinous flakes. 
In the peracute form of the disease these changes are not 
so prominent. 

(c) The lungs are found congested, thickened, dark red 
in color, very heavy (hepatized) ; the milder type will show 
congestion and edema. In the subacute form fibrinous 
pleuritis is frequently noted. The larynx, trachea and 
bronchi show congestion and reddening (catarrh). Some 
of the other organs (spleen, liver, kidneys) show parenchy- 
matous degeneration. In the subacute and chronic cases 
the lesions are caseous foci in the lungs, liver, on the mucosa 
of the intestine and occasionally on the epi- and endo- 
cardium. Fibrinous pleuritis is frequent in the chronic 
form. The joints of the limbs are often involved, showing 
exudation and more or less marked arthritis. The mus- 
culature in the chronic form will be grayish in color and 
flabby. 



FOWL CHOLERA 587 

Symptoms.— The period of incubation varies somewhat, 
no doubt due to the mode and virulency of the infection. 
It is usually one to four days; occasionally longer, four to 
seven days. Fowl cholera is characterized by its sudden 
onset and the rapidity of its course. When it first appears 
in a flock, birds will drop dead apoplectically without show- 
ing symptoms. They may be found dead beneath the roost, 
or on the nest. Some of them when attempting to walk or 
fly will drop suddenly and die after a brief struggle. After 
the disease has been in a flock for a few days, the less sus- 
ceptible T\all show some marked symptoms. The birds 
lose their appetite, become weak and greatly depressed. 
The wings are usually pendent, the neck curved and the 
head pulled downward. The entire plumage becomes ruffled 
and the birds walk with a weak, staggering gait. The 
temperature is elevated 2 to 4° F. above normal. Diarrhea, 
accompanied by intense thirst, becomes a prominent symp- 
tom. The droppings are at first of a yellowish-gray color, 
later becoming very thin, watery, fetid, of a greenish cast 
or dark green. The feathers around the cloaca become 
soiled and matted with the bowel discharge. Marked 
dyspnea sets in, the bird opening and closing its mouth 
during respirations; wheezing and rhonchi are frequently 
heard. The comb and wattles are dark bluish (cyanotic). 
The bird finally becomes very weak, staggers about, falls 
down, and dies in coma or convulsions. In the chronic 
form of the disease the course is much longer. The bird 
grows anemic, emaciated and cachectic. Frequently the 
joints are enlarged; the joint capsule may rupture and dis- 
charge a seropurulent material. Death results from exhaus- 
tion. The course in this form may extend over a period of 
several weeks. 

Diagnosis.— There are a few conditions in birds that 
might be confused with cholera, as the symptoms are similar. 
An accurate diagnosis is only possible on finding the typical 
bacilli. However, the symptoms and pathological findings 
should assist in making a diagnosis. A differential diagnosis 
must be made from ptomain poisoning which is very com- 
mon in birds, and which frequently kills a large number in 



588 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

a flock. The postmortem examination and the micro- 
scopic findings will be suflicient to make the distinction 
between them. Parasites in the bowels sometimes pro- 
duce similar symptoms, particularly Trichosoma collare, 
but an examination of one or more of the affected birds 
would make a clear differentiation. Chronic cases are some- 
times mistaken for tuberculosis and arthritis urica, but the 
autopsy and microscopic examination would at once make 
clear the difference. Inoculations with the blood into healthy 
birds may be made to assist in making the diagnosis. 

Prognosis. ^ — ^The mortality is 80 to 95 per cent. Fre- 
quently the entire flock will die. In some outbreaks the 
disease runs a milder course, the virulence of the infection 
not being high. 

Treatment. — Medical. — ^Treatment consists in the adminis- 
tration of bowel antiseptics and disinfectants. The course 
of the disease is usually too rapid for any medical treatment 
to be of value. It is advisable to administer to the entire 
flock a solution of iron sulphate (1 per cent.), which they 
should be allowed to drink of freely; or a solution of tannic 
acid (0.5 to 2 per cent.), which may be administered with 
a medicine dropper (1.0-2.0) to each bird twice daily. Some 
have claimed excellent results with sulphocarbolates (0.2-0.6) 
once daily. Various other medicines have been recommended 
but none has proved to be specific. 

Vaccines and Sera. —The treatment of sick fowls with 
vaccines and sera has not been successful to date. 

An immune serum has been made which produces a 
passive immunity lasting for a period of one to two weeks. 
This is recommended as a preventive when the disease 
makes its appearance in a flock, or when a flock of birds is 
exposed to infection. 

Vaccines (autogenic and polyvalent) have been used. 
The results have been unsatisfactory where the birds were 
already infected. On the other hand, very good results 
have been reported from the use of autogenic and polyva- 
lent vaccines to prevent the disease in the healthy birds of 
an infected flock. Vaccines seem to establish immunity in 
healthy flocks, preventing the disease or reducing the 



FOWL PEST 589 

mortality. More experimentation, however, is necessary 
before definite statements can be made regarding the value 
of vaccines and sera in the treatment of fowl cholera. 

Prevention.— Preventive treatment is by far the most 
important. In applying it the following should be consid- 
ered: 

(a) All newly acquired birds should be isolated for at 
least ten days before being allowed to come in contact 
with the regular flock. 

(b) When the disease makes its appearance in the neigh- 
borhood, precautions should be taken in regard to the car- 
riers of the infection. Administer antiseptics. (See Medical 
Treatment.) 

(c) When the disease appears in the flock, radical meas- 
ures must be taken prompth'. All healthy birds must be 
removed to new, uninfected quarters. The sick birds 
should be destroyed at once, and either burned or buried 
in lime. All litter and droppings should be treated in a 
similar manner. Disinfect the houses, coops, ground and yards 
with liquor cresolis compositus, using one gallon to thirty 
gallons of water. Use a spray pump so that the disinfectant 
will be forced to the ceiling, walls and all parts of the build- 
ing. The buildings and coops should then be allowed to 
stand open for a few days to allow the air to come in contact 
with all parts of it. It would be advisable to start with 
a new flock in the new quarters after a few weeks. A 
second disinfection would be recommended before allowing 
birds to be placed in the buildings. 

FOWL PEST. 

Fowl Plague. Pestus Avivni. 

Definition. —An acute, contagious, infectious disease of 
fowls. Very similar in many respects to chicken cholera. 

Occurrence.— This disease has been reported from ditterent 
sections of the United States, occurring in the form of an 
epizootic. It has been very ])revalent during the past 
ten years in some of the European countries (Germany, 



590 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Belgium, Italy and France). There is no doubt but that 
it has frequently been mistaken for fowl cholera. 

Etiology.— This disease is produced by an ultramicroscopic 
\drus. The exact nature of this virus has never been deter- 
mined. It is contained in the blood, the droppings, the 
exudate found in the serous canities, the bile and in the 
nasal discharges. The filtrate, when passed through porce- 
lain filters and injected into healthy chickens will produce 
the characteristic symptoms rather constantly. 

Pathogenicity.— Practically all fowls are susceptible to the 
\irus which is most commonly found in chickens, turkeys, 
sparrows and pheasants. Water fowls and pigeons are less 
susceptible to infection. Mammalia are not susceptible to 
the \'irus. 

Natural Infection.— Cohabitation of birds so that they 
come in contact with the nasal discharges and droppings 
from the sick is the most likely way in which infection is 
spread through a flock. Ingestion of food contaminated 
with the virus, or the eating of infected \'iscera, or blood, 
introduces the ^drus immediately into the digestive tract 
where it develops and produces the disease. Infection takes 
place no doubt in some cases from the infection entering 
the tissues through lesions in the skin or mucous membranes. 
The transmission of the disease may be brought about by 
the ^drus being carried through intermediate objects. 

Pathology.— The lesions found on autopsy are similar in 
some respects to those found in fowl cholera. In the per- 
acute cases the lesions may be very slight. The principal 
lesions are those found in ordinar}^ septicemia, especially 
hemorrhages in the serous membranes (pleura, peritoneum, 
epi- and endocardium), and in the mucous membranes of 
the digestive tract. The finding of a fibrinous exudate on 
the peritoneum and pleura has been frequently reported. 
Hyperemia of the spleen, liver and kidneys is usually present. 
The comb and wattles are dark bluish in color (cyanotic). 
Catarrhal inflammation of the conjunctiva and buccal mem- 
brane, with collections of frothy mucus, is often noted. In 
the digestive tract changes occur on the mucous membrane 
such as hemorrhages, collections of grayish-white, or yel- 



FOWL PEST 591 

lowish-green fecal material. Catarrhal inflammation of the 
intestinal mucosa, in varying degrees of intensity, is found 
throughout its course. The lungs are but slightly involved 
in the majority of cases. 

Symptoms.— These develop suddenly after a period of 
incubation of three to five days. They consist chiefly of 
depression, marked dulness, plumage becomes rough, comb 
and wattles bluish-red; drowsiness, coma, paralysis. The 
fowl will seek dark places, sit with head down in a crouching 
attitude, and refuse to move except when forced to do so. 
They will show a staggering gait, and as the disease pro- 
gresses will not be able to walk. There is nearly always a 
profuse discharge from the eyes, the conjunctiva inflamed 
and swollen. Collections of a similar secretion are found 
in the nasal passages, mouth and throat. On opening the 
mouth the membrane will show injection; in some cases 
hemorrhages and a thick glutinous collection over its surface. 
The bird often shakes its head and sneezes frequently to 
discharge the exudate which has collected. The bowel dis- 
charges may be normal in appearance, or thin, watery and 
have a greenish tinge. Sometimes hemorrhages occur in the 
bowels which give the feces a red or brown color. 

As the disease progresses the bird becomes much weaker, 
shows marked dyspnea and dies from paralysis. Some 
cases show spasms and con\ailsions shortly before death. 

The course of the disease is usually three to five days. 
Subacute cases last five to eight days. 

Diagnosis.— There is alw^ays some difficulty in differen- 
tiating between fowl pest and fowl cholera. The symptoms 
and autopsy are so similar that it is necessary to make a 
microscopic examination to determine whether or not the 
bacilli of fowl cholera are present. In fowl pest no organisms 
are found on microscopic examination, nor on cultures. 

Differential Diagnosis.— The differential diagnosis will 
depend upon: (a) Microscopic findings; (b) the infectio- 
contagious character of the disease (to distinguish from 
ptomain poisoning); (c) the well-known infectiousness of 
cholera virus to pigeons which are not susceptible to fowl 
pest. 



592 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Prognosis.— As most cases terminate fatally, the prognosis 
is bad. 

Treatment.— No medical treatment is known that has any 
material effect in controlling this disease after the fowl is 
once infected. Preventive treatment is by far the most 
important, and should consist of radical measures of iso- 
lation and disinfection. (See Fowl Cholera.) 



CHAPTER 11. 

ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES WITH LOCALIZA- 
TION IN CERTAIN ORGANS. 

EPITHEUOSIS INFECTIOSA AVIUM. 

Contagious Epithelioma. Chicken-pox. Diphtheria. 
Roup. Canker. 

Prevalency and Distribution of the Disease.— The disease 
affects nearly all birds, especially chickens, turkeys, pea- 
fowls, pheasants, guineas, pigeons, sparrows, quail, etc., 
but is not so frequently observed in ducks, geese and swans. 
The malady is widely distributed, appearing in practically 
all countries where birds are found in any considerable 
numbers. In the United States infectious epitheliosis is 
quite prevalent, especially in the northern states during the 
colder months. In the fall when the cold, damp weather 
begins outbreaks occur quite commonly, and poultrymen 
often refer to the early inception of the disease as a *'cold." 
The intensity of the disease usually increases until the 
warm weather makes its appearance, when it diminishes and 
lies dormant, to reappear at the first cool, damp weather in 
the fall when the birds are more closely confined. 

Etiology.— Evidence obtained by experiments indicates 
that a filtrable virus is the primary causative agent, and 
that the more or less severe complicating conditions are 
induced by secondary infection, of which a bacillus, probably 
the Bacillus diphtheriie columbarum of LoefHer, seems to be 
the most constant. 

Pathogenesis.— Transmission of this disease is not very 

difficult. Usually about 70 per cent, of healthy birds will 

show symptoms of the disease after associating with an 

afi'ected one for a short time. Actual contact is not neces- 

38 



594 ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

sary, as is shown by the spread of the disease at poultry 
shows. A bird with mucous membrane lesions may trans- 
mit the disease to a susceptible bird in the cutaneous form, 
and vice versa. 

Emulsions of scrapings from either cutaneous or mucous 
membrane lesions injected subcutaneously, submucously or 
applied to scarified areas on the skin, would in some cases 
produce the generalized form of the disease. Similar results 
were produced by using an emulsion of a twenty-four-hour 
agar growth of cultures taken from lesions and injected 
subcutaneously. 

It is possible at times by scarifying the mucous mem- 
brane of apparently healthy birds to produce at the point 
of injury local lesions not unlike those of this disease, but 
they disappear in a few days without manifestation of 
general symptoms. Incomplete experiments by using the 
blood of sick birds in an attempt to produce the disease 
gave negative results, which is contrary to that claimed by 
a few other investigators. 

Natural Infection.— There are a variety of ways by which 
natural infection takes place. Cohabitation is one of the 
most common, an infected bird introducing the disease 
into an entire flock. The exfoliated membranes, or the 
exudate given off while sneezing or coughing, act as inter- 
mediary carriers to the healthy birds. The infection in this 
way will find lodgment on the skin where there are slight 
abrasions, or on the mucosa of the eyes or mouth, where 
it develops either to form the pox lesions or the various 
other forms found on the mucous membranes. 

It is quite possible to have the disease develop in the 
eyes by the infection gaining entrance, and the bird irri- 
tating the skin and conjunctiva by rubbing them against 
objects or by scratching them with their feet. The disease 
is frequently spread by food or drink which is contaminated 
with infective material. 

A very common source of the disease is the poultry show 
where infected birds are exhibited, and conditions exist 
favorable to reduce the bird's resistance. It very fre- 
quently happens that on the return of birds from the show 



EPITHELIOSIS INFECTIOSA AVIUM 595 

the disease develops in the course of a week or ten days. 
Sparrows and pigeons are common carriers, often trans- 
porting the infection great distances. This is a very impor- 
tant method of transmission often overlooked. The disease 
has been observed in sparrows in a number of cases and 
exhibiting in them the same characteristics as in other 
birds. Sparrows and pigeons come in direct contact with 
poultry at feeding time and thus infect them. It is some- 
times spread by such intermediary agents as infected coops, 
clothing, etc. Young birds are more susceptible to the 
infection than older ones. Pigeons and chickens seem to 
be far more susceptible than other birds. 

It has been observed that one attack of the disease will 
produce immunity for a certain period. Either the skin 
form or involvement ' of the mucous membranes confers 
equal immunity against the opposite form. 

Pathology. —The postmortem findings vary with the 
immediate cause of death. In rare cases when death is 
due to suffocation early in the disease only the acute con- 
ditions are noted. The body appears fairly well nourished, 
the mucous membranes are covered with a thick slimy 
mucus which may occlude the upper air passages. In the 
larynx, or somewhere along the trachea, possibly in the 
larger bronchi, will be found the mass of dense, tough, 
yellowish material obstructing the lumen. 

In some cases when both eyes are involved death results 
from starvation early in the disease. The body is emaciated. 
The mucous membranes of the eyes, and often of the mouth 
and respiratory passages show inflammation, and usually 
there is a mass of this same yellow material in the con- 
junctival sac distorting or obscuring the eyes. The skin 
around the eyelids may also be involved. 

The majority of the fatal cases die in two to five weeks. 
In these the body shows all the symptoms of a toxemia, 
emaciation is pronounced, and the serous membranes 
studded with petechiie. In the cutaneous form the skin 
presents all the symptoms of a severe inflanunation, each 
nodule being a distinct process. Some of them show a 
similarity to tumor formation, especially on the comb where 



596 ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

the skin is thickest, but on the wattles and feathered skin 
around the head this feature is less pronounced. Masses 
of tough yellow material often distend the suborbital fossae, 
accumulate in the external ear, in the lung substance and 
along the digestive tract. 

Symptoms.— The disease assumes various forms, depend- 
ing upon whether it involves the mucous membranes of 
the mouth, the nasal passages, the eyes, the intestinal tract, 
or the skin. It is necessary from a clinical standpoint to 
consider these various types of the disease. It is this fact 
w^ich has led to so much confusion among the poultr\Tnen, 
as they have been inclined to consider these forms separate 
diseases. 

Nasal Passages.— The early s\Tnptoms are similar to those 
of an acute nasal catarrh, but the bird shows more dulness 
and prostration and there is present a peculiar offensive 
odor. The odor is very characteristic. The discharge 
from the nasal passages is at first thin, serous and later 
becomes thicker and glutinous, causing the affected birds 
to sneeze and shake their heads in an effort to clear the 
nasal passages. The nasal secretions collect around the 
openings, forming dirty, yellowish crusts. The infra-orbital 
fossae become inflamed and distended with pus, forming 
an enlargement on one or both sides of the head below the 
eyes. Owing to the occlusion of the nasal passages the bird 
breathes with open mouth. 

Eyes.— At first a thin serous secretion is observed flowing 
from one or both eyes; later it becomes turbid, thicker, 
adheres to the edges of the eyelids and dries to form crusts 
completely closing the eye. The retained yellow material 
becomes thicker and often accumulates to such an extent 
that it causes a pronounced bulging of the eyelids. , Masses 
of this material as large as a walnut are often removed from 
beneath the lids. Sometimes infection develops posteriorly 
to the eyes in the form of abscesses which force the eyes 
partly out of position. The cornea is turbid and often 
ulcerated. Complete destruction of one or both eyes is 
often observed in severe cases. 



EPITHELIOSIS INFECTIOSA AVIUM 597 

ilfow^/z.— Involvement of the mucous membrane of the 
mouth begins as a local disturbance. The disease is ushered 
in by a slight redness or congestion of isolated areas, or 
may involve the entire surface. In the center of the con- 
gested areas there will appear in a day or so small round 
or oval yellowish -white spots, which rapidly spread and 
eventually form extensive collections of glutinous pus, 
having somewhat the appearance of diphtheritic mem- 
brane. The nature of the collected material on these areas 
led to the name "diphtheria" for" this form. As the disease 
progresses this process often extends over the entire mucosa 
of the mouth, tongue and throat. When the larynx is 
involved, or even the trachea, as is occasionally noted, there 
will be marked symptoms of dyspnea. Asphj^^ia is fre- 
quent when the lesions extend to the larynx and trachea. 
On removal of the deposits the mucosa presents a red, 
granulating surface, which bleeds easily, showing in sopie 
cases extensive submucous swelling and edema. The com- 
missures of the mouth are frequently involved as is the 
skin and contiguous tissues, a characteristic pox lesion 
developing in the skin. Other complications are frequently 
found spreading from the oral cavity, i. e., to the pharynx, 
esophagus and crop, producing severe diarrhea and other 
bowel disturbances. 

/SA:t??.— Lesions on the skin are found in quite a few cases, 
more commonly on the comb, wattles and other portions 
of the skin not covered with feathers. It is first noticed 
as a very fine gray vesicle, which soon develops into small 
elevations of a reddish-gray color, which later become more 
grayish. Microscopically the nodules are composed of 
degenerated epithelial cells. These nodules in some cases 
become quite large, warty in appearance, dry and hard. 
In severe cases large numbers of these nodules are found 
distributed over the skin on exposed surfaces. On removing 
the surface of the nodules a raw granuhiting area is noted. 
Some cases show distinct degeneration of contiguous tissues. 

A mixed variety of the disease is of frequent occurrence, 
the mucosa showing the characteristic deposits and the 
skin pox k'sions. It is quite evident in these cases that 



598 ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

the disease spreads from one location to the other, and the 
difference in the lesions is due to the difference in the struct- 
ure of the tissue involved. 

General Symjjtoms.— In the earh^ stages before much 
secondary infection takes place, there are no marked general 
symptoms. Later marked general symptoms appear. The 
birds show dulness, assume a sitting posture, wings are 
held pendent, plumage becomes rough and the patients 
show much depression. The comb and wattles grow 
bluish-red in color, later pale and cold. In the colder 
climates the disease often assumes a subacute or chronic 
form, while in warmer climates the acute form is more often 
observed. Frequently, however, the disease assumes the 
character of a chronic catarrh. 

Diagnosis.— The disease usually makes its first appearance 
in the fall and often occurs as the cutaneous form. It may 
be overlooked, especially if the birds are on the range. 
The mucous membrane form usually makes its appearance 
soon after housing for the winter. The sneezing, mouth- 
breathing, occluded nostrils and an occasionally inflamed 
eye are significant, especially when rapidly spreading 
through the flock. Soon after a few will refuse food and 
appear depressed. 

It must also be suspected when similar symptoms appear 
after adding new birds to a healthy flock or birds returned 
from show^s. 

A peculiar characteristic and offensive odor is associated 
with this disease and poultrymen familiar with it often 
recognize the disease from the odor alone. The same odor 
is given off by cultures. 

Differential Diagnosis.— Wounds on the skin around the 
head, usually pick-inflicted, appear suspicious, but these 
heal rapidly without extensive thickening. An injury to 
the eye, even though serious, will not cause the formation 
of the characteristic yellow deposit. Difficult respiration, 
rarely seen in more than one bird in a flock, may be due to 
several causes, and those observed persisted for some time 
without affecting the general health of the bird. 



ANTHRAX 599 

Prognosis.— The cutaneous form usually runs a more 
favorable course, apparently recovering in one to three 
weeks, when the nodules become dry and scale off. The 
mucous membrane form is less favorable, the mortality 
varying from 10 to 50 per cent., depending on the care and 
sanitary surroundings. 

Aside from the actual number that die we find there is 
considerable loss resulting from the chronic effects. After 
the disappearance of all visible lesions the birds do not 
seem to regain their former good condition for months. 
Egg production is far below normal, and young birds have 
their growth checked. 

Treatment. — There have been a great many drugs recom- 
mended in the treatment of this disease, and so far none 
of them have proved very satisfactory. Daily treatment 
of individual birds is a tedious and laborious task, especially 
where large flocks are affected. 

The lesions, whether on the skin or in the mouth, should 
be washed with antiseptics, boric acid solution (2 per cent.), 
potassium permanganate (0.25-1 per cent.), or any other 
equally efficient antiseptic. The deposits should be removed 
with a curette or dull knife before applying the antiseptic. 

Faccme.— Vaccination has proved very satisfactory in this 
disease. One c.c. is administered subcutaneously, and in 
severe cases it should be repeated in four to six days. 

Prevention. —All newly acquired birds should be examined 
and isolated for at least ten days before allowing them to 
come in contact with the regular flock. 

As soon as the disease is recognized, it is recommended 
that all birds be vaccinated immediately to check it. 
Healthy flocks and those intended for exhibition purposes 
may be vaccinated to establish immunity. This has proved 
very satisfactory. The immunity established will last for 
at least six months to one year. 

ANTHRAX. 

This disease is essentially found in large animals. (See 
other works.) 



600 ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. 

AphthoB Epizooticop. 

Foot-and-mouth disease rarely occurs in carnivora, but 
has been observed in a few cases in dogs. Dogs kept on 
infected premises in contact with infected cattle, especially 
those that are used for herding animals are the ones most 
liable to be affected. Dogs are not very susceptible to the 
infection, and -take it in a mild form. The principal symp- 
toms are vesicles on the mucous membranes of the lips, 
sometimes forming ulcers, which penetrate more or less 
deeply into the tissues. Sometimes the feet become involved, 
when there will appear a vesicular exanthema on the balls 
of the feet and between the toes. The feet will be swollen, 
hot and sensitive, and the patient very lame. General 
symptoms, such as elevation of temperature, diarrhea, loss 
of appetite and vomiting have been observed. The disease 
has made its appearance in fowls, but only in a few instances 
has it been recorded. 

HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA OF CATS. 

Infectious Gastro-en teritis. 

History.— This disease has been reported as occurring in 
various sections of the United States and Europe. So far 
but little is known about it as the disease is a comparatively 
new one. 

Occurrence.— Cat septicemia occurs enzootically, espec- 
ially among cats congregated as in catteries and shows. 

Etiology.— The disease seems to be produced by a specific 
organism (Bacterium felisepticus bipolaris of Huse and 
Coleman). It is described as a short, rod-shaped organism, 
taking the bipolar stain readily with the common stains, but 
is Gram-negative. 

Pathogenicity.— The work up to the present time indicates 
the pathogenicity of this organism is confined to cats, rabbits 
and guinea pigs. Dogs and birds show no tendency toward 
natural infection. 



HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA OF CATS, 601 

Pathogenesis.— The organisms are evidently taken into 
the digestive tract with the food and drink. The organisms 
multiply very rapidly and induce in a very short period of 
time a severe hemorrhagic gastro-enteritis. The severity 
of the disease depends upon the natural resistance of the 
animal and the virulency of the infection. 

Symptoms.— The period of incubation is from two to five 
days. The development of the symptoms is very rapid. 
The disease is ushered in by a sudden suppression of the 
appetite, vomiting, retching, marked depression and general 
weakness. The animal shows a tendency to seek dark cool 
places and lies stretched out on its abdomen. The tem- 
perature rises rapidly after the onset reaching 103-106° F. 
in twelve to twenty-four hours. The temperature remains 
high during the early part of the disease, but later becomes 
normal or subnormal. Emaciation comes on rapidly, a 
profuse diarrhea is present, the feces having a characteristic 
fetid odor. As the disease progresses the animal becomes 
weak, eyes retracted and staring. In three to four days 
coma develops, and death follows in the course of a few 
hours. The course is very rapid in acute cases. Some 
few cases assume a subacute form, and the symptoms are 
milder but progressive. 

Pathology.— A more or less severe gastro-enteritis hemor- 
rhagica is typical of this disease. The entire mucosa of the 
digestive tract is highly congested and dotted over the 
surface with petechise and numerous patches of ecchymoses. 
The membrane is covered with a catarrhal exudate which 
in the majority of cases contains some blood. The serous 
covering of the intestines shows marked congestion, but no 
petechise. The presence of gas in the stomach and bowels is 
quite constant. The stomach particularly is nearly always 
found distended. The heart muscle, liver and kidneys show 
signs of rapid degeneration. The gall-bladder is greatly 
distended, and the bile is dark colored, thick and tenaceous. 
The lungs may show congestion, and in subacute attacks 
pneumonic areas. Other cases may not show changes in 
the lungs. 



602 ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Diagnosis.— The disease is recognized by its contagious 
character, its rapid, severe course and the profuse diarrhea. 
The absence of catarrhal symptoms of the air passages and 
eyes would assist in differentiating it from distemper. 
Ptomains or mineral poisons will produce similar s^miptoms, 
but the microscopic examination, the contagious character 
and the investigation of the food supply, history of poison- 
ing, etc., will serve to make clear the differentiation. It 
is very important to be able to make an accurate diagnosis 
for the protection of other animals. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is bad. Even in the early 
period of the disease, and in the apparently mild cases, it 
should be looked upon as a very serious condition. The 
mortality is very high, from 80 to 90 per cent, of the cases 
terminating fatally. 

Treatment.— There is no treatment known that has 
much, if any, effect on the course of the disease. Sympto- 
matic treatment is the only thing that can be done. A 
vaccine is being used as a prophylactic treatment, but at 
present it is difficult to say what the results will prove to 
be. An antisera is also being used at present and gives 
considerable promise of success as a curative and preventive 
agent. The progress of the disease, after it once breaks out 
in a hospital or cattery can be curtailed only by removing 
all sick and exposed animals, and thoroughly disinfecting 
the rooms with formaldehyd gas. All utensils, litter, etc., 
should be rendered innoxious. Prevention is far more 
important than treatment. 



CHAPTER III. 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES WITH SPECIAL INVOLVE- 
MENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

RABIES. 

Hydrophobia. Lyssa. 

Definition.— An acute infectious disease, fatal in the 
majority of cases, and characterized cHnically by disturb- 
ance of consciousness, marked irritabiUty and later by 
symptoms of paralysis. 

Occurrence.— Rabies is one of the oldest known diseases 
and has been observed in all countries. It is most com- 
monly noted in dogs, cats, wolves and foxes. Other animals 
are less commonly affected. It is estimated that about 
90 per cent, of the cases of rabies occur in dogs. The 
disease often occurs enzootically, which may be at any 
season of the year. The larger number of outbreaks in the 
United States has been in the colder months of the year. 
Outbreaks are naturally more frequent where dogs congre- 
gate, and in communities or cities where there are no pro- 
tective regulations. In some countries and districts rabies 
is decreasing, due to proper police regulations which restrict 
the number of dogs running at large. 

Etiology.— Rabies is produced by an ultramicroscopic 
virus. This virus is found to be the most virulent when 
taken from the central nervous system (brain and cord), 
less so from the peripheral nerves, salivary and other glands 
and their secretions. The infection does not seem to be 
present in the blood of affected animals. The infectious 
agent is fixed, non-volatile and is an obligatory or fixed 
parasite. 

Pathogenicity.— The disease is readily transmitted to 
dogs, rabbits, guinea pigs and other animals by inoculating 



604 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

them with the virulent sahva, or an emulsion of the cornu 
ammonis, medulla oblongata, and some other portions of 
central nerve tissue. The most satisfactory results are 
obtained b}^ injecting some of the virus under the dura 
mater of the brain or cord. The same inoculation may be 
made into the anterior chamber of the eye, or into the 
muscles, but the results are not so certain. Injection of 
the virus into or around the peripheral nerves has produced 
the disease quite constantly. Scarification of the skin and 
rubbing the virus on the area has produced positive results 
only in about 40 per cent, of the cases. Other methods of 
inoculation have been less successful. Birds may be infected 
by inoculation. 

Natural Infection.— Rabies is produced in practically all 
cases by the victim being bitten by a rabid animal, intro- 
ducing the virulent saliva into the wound, to come in con- 
tact with the nerves, muscles, or subcutaneous tissues. 
Rarely are cases produced by the infectious agent being 
licked from wounds, or from contact with lesions on the skin . 

Pathogenesis.— When the virus is introduced into some 
part of the body through a bite by another animal, or by 
inoculation artificially, it is supposed that it follows the 
course of peripheral nerve fibers along which it is carried 
to the central nervous system. The explanation of the 
development of the two types of the disease is explained 
by the path of travel to the central system, whether it 
reaches the brain, medulla oblongata, or the spinal cord. 
After the virus reaches the central nervous system to pro- 
duce irritation on certain groups of cells, it is then centrifu- 
gally distributed to different parts of the body. It reaches 
the salivary glands, which favors the development of the 
virus, increasing the secretion of the glands, and then is 
further disseminated through the saliva. The period of 
incubation of rabies is quite variable. The virus after 
being introduced into a wound may remain in a dormant 
state for some time before reaching the central nervous 
system. The variation in susceptibility of animals in the 
virulency of the infection, and the method of the dissemina- 
tion of the virus in the bod}' naturally make the period of 



RABIES 605 

incubation rather long. Three to seven weeks is the usual 
time for development in dogs. However, some cases 
develop only after several months. The period of incu- 
bation in cats and fowls is usually shorter than in dogs. 
The period of incubation is usually shorter in young animals. 
The toxicity of rabies virus and the pathogenic action on 
the tissues are no doubt due to some chemical product which 
up to the present has not been determined. 

Pathology.— The disease is really characterized by the 
absence of any marked gross pathological findings. The 
lesions vary somewhat in individual cases. The digestive 
tract shows congestion and hyperemia. The stomach may 
be contracted and empty, or is frequently partially filled 
with foreign material such as stones, straw, sticks, splinters 
of wood, hair, feathers, etc. The folds of the mucous mem- 
brane are markedly congested on their summits. Hemor- 
rhage sometimes occurs from the foreign material cutting 
or tearing the mucosa. The mucosa of the pharjux and 
larynx shows congestion and is covered with mucus. An 
acute catarrhal inflammation of the respiratory passages 
is frequently found. The brain and its coverings are often 
injected with small hemorrhages. Xo other lesions of any 
importance are observed. 

Symptoms.— From a clinical standpoint it is necessary 
to divide rabies into two types, viz: (1) Furious rabies, 
and (2) dumb rabies. The dift'erent train of s\Tnptoms 
depends entirely upon whether the brain or spinal cord is 
primarily involved. However, cases are observed occa- 
sionally where an animal affected with dumb rabies suddenly 
develops the furious type. The dumb or mute rabies seems 
to be the most common form in the United States. 

1. Furious Rabies.— In this form three stages of devel- 
opment are rather sharply defined: (a) ^Melancholic or pro- 
dromic stage; {b) maniacal or irritative stage; (r) paralytic 
stage. 

(a) Stage of Melancholy.— In the stage of melancholy or in 
the beginning of the disease, the first thing usually noted by 
the owner is the altered behavior of the animal. It becomes 
sullen, afraid, seeks dark places, is easily irritated, restless and 



606 IXFECTIOUS DISEASES 

obstinate foften does not obey its master). The patient 
is also inclined to hide itself, alternately gets up and lies 
dov^ii frequently, makes sudden, unusual movements, such 
as snapping or biting at imaginary objects, or barks sud- 
denly without any cause. During the early stage of the 
disease the appetite is not much changed, but later the 
manner of eating and the kind of food chosen are greatly 
modified. Dogs are inclined to eat indigestible objects, 
such as pieces of wood: eat their own feces and lap up their 
owTi urine, etc. A very noticeable s\TQptom is the tendency 
to grasp objects as if to eat them, then suddenly let them 
fall from the mouth. Constipation is usually present in 
this stage. During the latter part of this stage the patient 
is excitable. The patient shows a marked change in dis- 
position, snaps at objects, its master, other persons or 
other animals. This excitability is more noticeable toward 
strange persons or animals. Sometimes the patient mani- 
fests no change in disposition toward its master, famihar 
persons or animals. The excitability gradually, or very 
rapidly, increases. The nervous reflexes become sensitive 
and the patient is easily startled by sudden noises, touch- 
ing objects or by strong light. The pupil of the eye dilates 
and the facial expression is changed. Dyspnea is prominent 
at times. The patient T\ill often scratch or bite the place of 
infection, sometimes doing extensive injury to the area. 
The appetite is entirely suppressed but the animal seeks 
water and attempts to drink, but, on accoiuit of the begin- 
ning paralysis of the lar^mx and pharynx, does not succeed. 
The salivary secretion is increased, and saliva hangs from 
the mouth in long strands. This stage usually lasts from 
one to three days. 

(h) Stage of I rr it at io7i.— In this stage the s^TQptoms reach 
a higher degree of development. The excitement increases; 
hallucinations, which bring about ^iolent fury or rage, are 
soon apparent. The voice of the animal changes decidedly 
from the normal. This is a very characteristic s^TQptom 
of rabies, and no doubt results from the congestion and 
paralysis of the vocal cords. The o^Tier's attention is 
always attracted by the tmusual amount of barking and 



RABIES 607 

the change in the voice. At this stage they become vicious, 
and if confined show a tendency to chew objects and tear 
them to pieces. Rugs, carpets, or other objects with which 
they come in contact are torn and destroyed. At this 
time if they are not confined they wih usually wander 
away from home, biting other animals or persons that hap- 
pen to come in their path. Often during a short period of 
time they will travel long distances before returning, which 
they invariably do. Upon their return they show emacia- 
tion, exhaustion, often wounds from being bitten by other 
animals, and in general have a dejected appearance. The 
desire to bite aimlessly objects and animals is quite char- 
acteristic of this stage. A rabid dog in this stage may 
inoculate a large number of animals unless confined. When 
confined in a cage or room they show at times intense fury 
and viciousness. If irritated, by placing a stick between 
the bars of the cage, the dog will attack it viciously, but 
shows the peculiar symptom of simply biting instead of 
holding on to the stick as non-rabid dogs ordinarily do. 
As this stage progresses the periods of fury become shorter, 
and soon marked depression is noted. Paralysis of some of 
the special nerves develops, shown by the increase in the 
change of the voice, which becomes a peculiar wail or howl, 
and the difficulty in swallowing. The eyes are congested, 
and also the mucous membranes of the mouth. This stage 
of fury lasts usually two to four days. 

(c) Paralytic Stage.— The symptoms of paralysis become 
more pronounced, and the patient is less vicious. Complete 
loss of voice and the inability to swallow, with paralysis 
of the tongue and masseter muscles, are early symptoms of 
this stage. The mouth is held open, the dry tongue is pro- 
truded and completely paralyzed. The eyes are retracted, 
lose their expression and luster; the pupils become dihited, 
in some cases unequally. The animal shows marked gen- 
eral emaciation, the hair coat rough and there is much 
exhaustion. The general paralysis asserts itself, beginning 
in most cases at the tail and posterior limbs. The animal 
has difficulty in walking or standing; later there is complete 
paralysis of the posterior part of the body. The i)aralysis 
rapidly ascends to the fore parts and central ner\'ous sys- 



608 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

tern, causing death in most cases on the fifth to eighth day 
of the attack. The temperature in rabies has not been 
recorded in many cases. During the early stages it is 
elevated to 104°-106° F. ; later becomes subnormal. Varia- 
tions in the symptoms of furious rabies are observed, but 
most cases present a rather constant clinical picture. 

The symptoms of furious rabies in cats are very similar 
to those of dogs. * They often become very \'icious, and 
bite and scratch everything that they come in contact 
with. The change of voice is also quite noticeable. The 
course of the disease is usually shorter, lasting from three 
to six days. 

2. Dumb Rabies.— This form is characterized by a 
paralysis of the lower jaw, tongue, larynx and pharynx. 
This symptom develops early in the disease and is the most 
prominent one until general paralysis manifests itself. 
The owner is often led to suspect that the animal has a 
bone or some other object lodged between its teeth, or 
in its throat. All such cases should be looked upon with 
suspicion, and all precautions taken in making the exami- 
nation. In the majority of cases no nervous or excitable 
symptoms are shown; the paralytic symptoms gradually 
becoming more pronounced until the animal succumbs to 
general paralysis. Cases are observed occasionally where 
symptoms of excitement develop during the course of the 
disease. One such case was observed in which the early 
symptoms indicated dumb rabies but in twenty-four hours 
all the symptoms of the furious form had developed. Ani- 
mals with this form of the disease usually seek dark, cool 
places and lie almost constantly. 

There is the same peculiar expression from the eyes as 
in the other form. The patient often attempts drinking 
or eating which the paralysis prevents. There is usually 
no tendency to bite nor \4ciousness manifested. 

Rabies in rabbits nearly always assumes the paralytic 
form. Fowls show the characteristic symptoms of furious 
rabies in some cases, such as excitement, change of voice, 
ruffled plumage, attacking other fowls, people, etc. In other 
instances the paralytic form is observed. 

Diagnosis.— In furious rabies the diagnosis does not 



RABIES 609 

present any great difficulty where the symptoms are pro- 
nounced and the animal observed through the different 
stages. The positive proof of a bite inflicted pre\iously 
by another animal is of considerable importance in mak- 
ing the diagnosis. An accurate diagnosis is of great impor- 
tance for two reasons, viz.: (a) In case human subjects are 
bitten, or in any way inoculated, it will give them an oppor- 
tunity to receive the antirabic treatment early; and (b) 
to protect other animals and persons from becoming inocu- 
lated b}' quarantining and confining the animal. Under no 
circumstances should an animal showing symptoms of rabies, 
or suspected of having the disease, be killed. It should 
be put in quarantine and observed. It has been demon- 
strated that animals destroyed early in the disease often 
do not show positive findings on microscopic examination. 
The characteristic symptoms of irritation, tendency for 
biting, change of voice, paralysis, etc., generally show evi- 
dence enough to the experienced clinician to establish the 
diagnosis. The detection of Negri bodies on microscopic 
examination will make the diagnosis positive. In dumb 
rabies the diagnosis is made on the characteristic symptoms 
of paralysis of the lower jaw, the somnolence in most cases, 
the expression and the paralysis of other parts of the body 
in the course of two to four days. All cases showing the 
symptoms of the lower jaw hanging down should be diag- 
nosed dumb rabies until ample proof is shown that it is some 
other condition. Microscopic examination of the brain 
should be made to establish the diagnosis as in furious 
rabies. Intracranial inoculations of rabbits have been used 
extensively in making a positive diagnosis. This method 
requires from fourteen to seventeen days, and is falling 
into disuse. Inoculations of the virus in guinea pigs have 
also been used extensively as a diagnostic measure. 

Prognosis and Course.— The disease is fatal in practically 
all cases. The possibility of recovery in very mild cases 
cannot be denied. Howe\'er, no authentic case of recovery 
has been recorded. It has been estimated that only about 
17 to 20 per cent, of the animals bitten by known rabid 
animals develop rabies. ' This percentage is higher in dogs 
than in any other small animal. The course of the disease 
39 



610 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

is quite constant in the different animals, although variations 
occur occasionally. Five to seven days is the usual course; 
it may be in exceptional cases as short as two days or as 
long as ten or eleven daj^s. There is but little difference 
in the course of the two forms; usually dumb rabies runs a 
longer course than the furious type. 

Differential Diagnosis.— There are quite a number of 
diseases in small animals which might be confused with 
rabies: (a) Diseases of the brain, particularly inflammations 
invohdng the meninges and the cerebral substance itself. 
In these cases irritability and nervousness are present, but 
the tendency to bite, the aggressiveness, change in voice 
and development of the paralysis in the same way are 
absent. If there should be any doubt the animal must be 
confined and observed for a few days when the differentia- 
tion will not be difficult, (b) Canine distemper (nervous 
form) sometimes simulates rabies, but the history of the 
case, the other symptoms of distemper and the length of 
the course of the disease will reveal the difference, (c) 
Parasites in the intestinal tract often produce certain 
nervous phenomena, but of different development and t}^e 
than rabies. Many of the characteristic symptoms of 
rabies are absent, (d) Other parasites (Linguatula 
rhinaria, Dioctophyme renale, Spiroptera sanguinolenta, 
Otodectes cynotis) may produce certain nervous symp- 
toms, but careful examination and observation of the 
animal will readily distinguish the difference, (e) Foreign 
bodies lodged between the teeth, around the tongue or in 
the pharynx all induce salivation, hoarseness from the 
accompanying edema and cause the mouth to remain open. 
These cases should be examined very carefully to differ- 
entiate them from rabies. In most of these cases it is 
impossible to close the mouth, which is not true in rabies, 
and there are no general symptoms. (/) Trigeminal or 
facial paralysis is observed occasionally in the course of 
distemper, or as an independent condition. In these cases 
there are no other symptoms of paralysis, nor any general 
symptoms. The course is longer and the animal remains 
otherwise normal, (g) Epilepsy might be confused with 



RABIES ; 611 

rabies. But this condition comes on suddenly and lasts 
only a few minutes to disappear completely until the next 
attack. (/?) Eclampsia is differentiated by its occurrence 
in bitches at or near the time of whelping, clonic spasms 
which affect the entire body and none of the other char- 
acteristic symptoms of rabies, (i) Infectious bulbar paral- 
ysis in which the symptoms are quite similar to rabies. 
It is distinguished from rabies by the absence of the furious 
attacks, \dciousness and paralysis of the lower jaw. The 
blood and brain tissue are infectious and the saliva not. 
This disease develops suddenly and runs a more rapid 
course than rabies. Finally, there are a few conditions in 
which the animal w^ill show more or less nervousness, but 
none of the other s^^mptoms of rabies. Animal inoculation 
and the microscopic examination of the brain should be 
made in all cases of doubt. 

Treatment.— After rabies has once developed in an animal 
no treatment will have any effect on the disease. Bitten 
wounds that have been caused by a rabid animal should 
be treated prompth\ They should be opened freely, and 
if hemorrhage takes place it is all the better, as it will tend 
to remove the virus from the wound. The wound should 
be washed freely and thoroughly with potassium perman- 
ganate solution (1 per cent.), or bichlorid solution (1 to 
1000). Cauterization of the wound with silver nitrate is 
also recommended. The success of this treatment in pre- 
venting the development of the disease will depend upon 
the length of time which has elapsed after the bite, and the 
thoroughness in which the antiseptic or caustic is applied. 
Disinfection of the wound alone should not be depended 
upon for the prevention of rabies. 

Preventive Inoculation.— Preventive inoculation is being 
used with great success in animals, and is highly recommended 
in all cases where there is any doubt about the animal 
being infected. 

INFECTIOUS BULBAR PARALYSIS. 

Pseud or ahies. 

Definition.— An infectious disease affecting dogs, cats, rats, 
horses and cattle resembling rabies in many respects. 



612 IXFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Etiology.— This disease is produced by a specific wus, 
the nature of which has not been determined. All animals 
except fowls are susceptible to inoculations with the \'irus 
which is found in the blood, central nervous system, and 
in some of the other tissues. The saliva, bile and urine are 
free from the ^dfus. 

Pathogenicity.— ]Most animals are very susceptible to 
infection by inoculating them with only minute quantities 
of the blood, or central nerve tissues, from those affected 
with the disease. At the point of inoculation, the tissues 
become red and inflamed; later, necrotic. The inoculated 
woimd shows intense irritation, and the animal bites and 
scratches the part almost continuously. Dogs and cats 
contract the disease readily after being fed on organs or 
tissues containing the ^'irus. 

Natural Infection.— This has not been definitely established, 
but probably in most cases is due to eating infected meats, 
or being inoculated by infected mice or rats. 

Pathology.— Xo marked lesions are found in this disease, 
except at the point of inoculation. The meninges of the 
brain, and the brain substance, usually show h}*peremia, 
and blood extravasations. When infection takes place in 
cats and dogs from eating infected meat, the stomach and 
small intestines are congested, and in some cases markedly 
inflamed. Hemorrhages under the mucosa, and freqtiently 
petechia? on the serous membranes of the stomach and intes- 
tines are noted. Xo other lesions are found. 

Symptoms.— The period of incubation varies from two to 
nine days. The onset of the disease is characterized in the 
dog and cat by a sudden change in disposition, tendency to 
seek dark, cool places, where the patient lies quietly or 
maintains a crouching attitude. They often cry or mew 
as if in severe pain. Vomiting is more or less persistent, 
there is complete loss of appetite, and marked salivation. 
Severe itching is manifested in most cases by the animal 
scratching and biting itself, sometimes so severely that the 
skin is entirely removed over the involved area, usually 
aroimd the lips or face. In some few cases this symptom may 



TETANUS.— LOCKJAW 613 

be absent. As the disease progresses the animal shows more 
pain by howhng, crying, or groaning. The muscles around 
the head and face often show marked twitching, which may 
be periodical or constant. The nervous system is affected as 
is shown by increased reflex excitability, paralysis of the 
pharynx and larynx, and increased muscular sensitiveness. 
There is marked dyspnea. The temperature is usually normal 
or subnormal; toward the end the subnormal temperature is 
very marked. The animal usually dies in about thirty-six 
to forty hours. 

Diagnosis.— There might be some difficulty in establishing 
an accurate diagnosis. However, the symptoms, which are 
quite constant, and the rapid, fatal course, would assist. 

Differential Diagnosis.— In the dog and cat it is necessary 
to distinguish this disease from rabies. The chief points of 
difference are the following: (a) Rabies (furious) is charac- 
terized by symptoms of rage or fury, aggressiveness; in dumb 
rabies by paralysis of the lower jaw. • Both are absent in 
bulbar paralysis, (b) The saliva in rabies is highly infectious 
while in this disease it is non-infectious, (c) The period of 
incubation is usually from two to nine da^'s, while in rabies, 
although variable, it is much longer. On account of its rapid 
course, it might easily be mistaken for some acute poisoning. 
Should the symptom of itching and irritation be absent a 
differentiation would be quite difficult. In such cases experi- 
mental inoculation with the blood of the affected animal into 
healthy ones will assist. Frequently, a number of animals 
in a neighborhood will become infected at the same time, the 
disease appearing in the form of an enzootic. 

Prognosis.— Very unfavorable. The majority of cases die. 

Treatment.— Treatment is unsatisfactory. Antiseptics for 
the digestive tract may be tried. Thorough disinfection is 
necessary in order to check the disease. x411 dead animals 
should be burned or buried in lime to destroy the virus. 

TETANUS. LOCKJAW. 

Definition.— An acute, infectious disease, characterized by 
involvement of the nervous system, resulting in spasmodic 



614 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

contractions of certain groups of muscles, or the entire mus- 
culature of the animal's body, without that consciousness 
is disturbed. 

Occurrence.— Tetanus is of rare occurrence in small animals. 
It is observed occasionally in dogs and birds. It is far more 
common in the large domesticated animals. 

Etiology.— It is produced by a specific bacillus (Bacillus 
tetani of Nicolaier) . 

Natural Infection.— Infection takes place by the bacilH or 
spores gaining entrance to wounds in the skin or mucous 
membranes. The most common intermediate carrier of the 
mfection is the soil or earth which comes in contact with 
the wounds. Earely is the disease spread from one animal 
to another. 

Pathology.— The postmortem is usually negative. The 
affected muscles are usually pale, or may show occasional 
hemorrhages. The condition of the blood indicates in most 
cases that death is due to suffocation. Other lesions are 
inconstant and of minor importance. 

Symptoms.— ^►General tetanus is of rare occurrence, although 
observed occasionally. It is characterized by a stiff, stilt y 
gait, extended head, ears stiffly erected, protrusion of the 
membrana nictitans, skin wrinkled over the forehead, 
trismus. The muscles of the back and posterior limbs are 
stiff and hard; tail erected and stiff. The reflexes are greatly 
accelerated as shown when the animal is touched or hears 
sudden noises. There is frequently opisthotonus, or ortho- 
tonus. ^ ery characteristic is the facial expression of dogs 
suffering from tetanus. Perhaps in the greater number of 
cases in dogs and birds tetanus is local and involves only 
certain groups of muscles, usually the masseters, the muscles 
of the ears, skin and muscles over the forehead, membrana 
nictitans, and the muscles of the neck, all of which are con- 
tracted and the head held fixed. In birds the symptoms of 
stiffness of the neck, wings held in a fixed position, ruffled 
feathers, stilty gait are the most prominent. 

Diagnosis.— This is made mainly on the characteristic 
symptom of tonic spasms of groups of muscles, with normal 
consciousness and temperature, and the subacute course. 

Differential Diagnosis. — (a) Differentiation must be made 



TETANUS— LOCKJAW 615 

between tetanus and strychnin poisoning which show very 
similar symptoms. In strychnin poisoning the spasms develop 
more rapidly, and are of much greater severity and the mem- 
brana nictitans is not usually affected. The extremely in- 
creased reflex excitability in strychnin poisoning as compared 
to tetanus will also serve to differentiate them. 

(6) Tetanus may also be mistaken for cerebrospinal menin- 
gitis, but in the latter disease other symptoms, such as dulness 
and paralysis of certain cerebral nerves, are present which 
will assist in the diagnosis. 

(c) Muscular rheumatism is differentiated by the absence 
of reflex excitability; the muscles are painful and swollen 
rather than contracted as in tetanus. 

(d) There are quite a number of conditions (rabies, eclamp- 
sia, epilepsy, articular rheumatism, etc.) which show some 
symptoms of tetanus, but there are always other symptoms 
present which are sufficient for differentiation. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis in dogs, providing the symp- 
toms are localized, is quite favorable. Should the disease, 
however, become general it is unfavorable. The course in 
the dog is usually subacute or chronic. 

Treatment.— Z^zV^e^ic— When trismus is present, prevent- 
ing the animal from taking food, rectal feeding is recom- 
mended. Concentrated beef broth at body temperature is 
perhaps best. Two to four ounces should be given 3 to 4 
times daily. During the later stages milk can be allowed as 
they will lap it in small quantities. 

Medical.— Small and repeated doses of morphin sulphate 
(0.05-0.2) once or twice daily to control spasms of the muscles; 
or chloral hydrate administered per rectum (1 to 4 with acacia 
and glycerin), using 6.0-12.0 of the mixture once or twice 
daily. Subcutaneous injections of a diluted carbolic acid 
solution have been recommended, but are of doubtful value. 

Serum.— Tetanus antitoxin has proved to be of greater 
value as a prophylactic than a curative treatment. Large 
doses might be used, 1500 units daily for three to four days. 

Surgical. — In case a wound is found indicating the focus 
of infection, it should be thoroughly curetted and strong 
antiseptic solutions applied (mercuric chlorid 1 to 1000; 
carbolic acid solution 5 per cent.). 



CHAPTER IV. 

chroxk: ixfectious diseases. 

TUEERCULOSIS OF BIRDS. 

Tuberculosis Arium. Arian Tuberculosis. 

Definition. —A chronic infectious disease of chickens, ducks, 
pigeons, parrots and canaries. It is characterized by a slow, 
progressive emaciation, which ends in death from exhaustion. 

Occurrence. — AAian tuberculosis is a ver\- common disease 
of chickens and parrots. Occurring enzootically among the 
former, enormous losses to the pouln^men result. During 
the past few years it has made its appearance in practically 
all sections of the United States. In a number of instances 
entire flocks of birds have succumbed to the disease, or 
beoxne so infected and emaciated that their destruction 
was necessarj'. The economic imf)ortance of the disease is 
not entirely confined to those that die from the disease 
directly, but it has an important bearing on the egg produc- 
tion. 

Eriolo^.— This disease is produced by the BaciQus tuber- 
culosis a\"ium. Its biological characteristics are similar in 
many respects to the Bacillus tubercidosis of other animals 
mammahan tuberculosis . 

Pathogenesis.— The bacilli, picked up with the food, are 
passed directly to the intestinal tract, where they pass 
through the hmph foUicles into the intestinal wall, either 
to become localized at this point, or to pass into the portal 
vein and hver. Or thev mav gain access to the general circu- 
lation and through it become distributed to various parts 
of the body. It is possible that the intestines may not 
become affected by the baciUi passing through the walls, but 
in a great many cases tubercular nodules are found in this 



TUBERCULOSIS OF BIRDS 617 

location. When the bacilh are taken into the general circula- 
tion specific lesions will be found in the spleen, lungs, joints, 
etc. The large number of nodules found in the intestinal 
wall develop in most cases from the infection following along 
the course of the lymph nodes, or from the bacilli becoming 
lodged between the serous and muscular coats of the bowel, 
producing a reactive inflammation and the formation of 
tubercles. The toxic action of the chemical products of 
the bacilli produces a gradual emaciation, cachexia, and 
ultimately death. 

Natural Infection.— Most cases of tuberculosis in fowls no 
doubt result from eating foods contaminated with bowel 
discharges from affected birds. Bacilli are found in the 
feces of affected birds in large numbers, particularly in those 
cases where ulcerations are present on the intestinal mucosa. 
Another very common source of infection is when healthy 
birds eat the organs of those that have succumbed to the 
disease. Carelessness in disposing of dead birds makes this 
a very common source of infection. There is a possibility 
of birds contracting the disease from the fecal discharges of 
cattle affected with tuberculosis. This is a disputed point 
at the present time. There is considerable doubt also about 
their contracting the disease from the sputum of the human 
subject. Parrots seem to contract the disease from this 
source. Numerous cases have been recorded where fowls 
contracted tuberculosis, and at the same time the attendants 
had the disease. Whether transmission of the disease is 
brought about in this way is in dispute. Flocks are usually 
infected from newly acquired tubercular birds. Pigeons may 
carry the disease from flock to flock. 

Pathology.— The chief anatomical changes are found in the 
liver, spleen, intestines, joints, and in parrots in the joints, 
and skin about the head and neck. The surface of the liver 
is covered with numerous small nodules and on cross-section 
they are found to extend into or through the entire structure. 
Sometimes the tubercles become confluent and form large 
masses, white, gray, or grayish-white in color, the centers of 
which are caseous. The liver is frequently much enlarged, 
very friable indicating fatty degeneration. The spleen is 



618 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

similarly affected. The intestinal lesions are very common, 
and consist of a large number of small nodules found on the 
mucosa. By confluence large areas appear as do ulcers. On 
the serous coat of the intestines are found nodules varying 
in size from a millet seed to a hazel nut. The mesentery may 
show similar lesions. The abdominal hmph glands are 
usually enlarged and caseated. In some cases on opening 
the abdominal cavity a striking picture is presented as the 
entire visceral peritoneum is covered by hundreds of very 
small white or grayish nodules. The lesions in the lungs are 
similar, although not usually so marked as in the liver and 
intestines. The affected joints are enlarged, contain a cheesy, 
yellowish mass and the articular cartilages are eroded. The 
other organs and tissues are not often involved, although 
nodules are found occasionally in the kidneys, ovaries, tes- 
ticles, pericardium, heart and gizzard. In parrots the disease 
is usually localized around the head and in the mouth. 
Nodules varying in size and condition are found containing 
the same cheesy, yellowish material. 

Symptoms.— In the early stages of avian tuberculosis the 
symptoms are very indefinite. The disease is chronic and 
characterized by a gradual emaciation without any specific 
clinical s^Tnptoms. The emaciation continues in spite of good 
appetite. The appetite persists as a rule until the beginning 
of a general toxemia, when it diminishes to disappear entirely 
during the latter stages of the disease. Symptoms of anemia 
develop as evidenced by paleness of the mucous membranes, 
comb and wattles, dulness, and rough plumage. During the 
latter stage the fowls are listless, much emaciated, and show 
all the symptoms of asthenia. Diarrhea sets in, and complete 
exhaustion is followed in a few days by death. There is con- 
siderable variation in the period of time required for the 
development of the general symptoms. When the bones and 
joints are affected, there is usually an involvement of the 
joints of the wings, and the tarsal joints. At first the joint 
shows swelling which develops gradually. The swelling is 
firm at first, but in nearly all cases becomes soft and fluctuat- 
ing, and when opened discharges a yellow, caseous material. 
The bird is lame and the wings are held pendent. 



TUBERCULOSIS OF BIRDS 619 

In some cases small nodules are found beneath the skin on 
various parts of the body. Parrots are affected in the major- 
ity of cases locally around the eyes, face, or on the neck, or 
the articulations may be involved. The lesions are small, 
round, or oval nodules developing on some part of the skin 
or mucous membrane. Later they become caseous. Their 
characteristics vary somewhat, depending upon whether they 
are located in the skin, or in the mucous membrane of the 
mouth. The nodules when irritated often become quite 
large, rupture, and leave an extensive ulcerous surface. When 
the joints are involved the same s^TQptoms are observed as in 
fowls. General symptoms occur occasionally in parrots. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis from the symptoms presents 
considerable difficulty. However, when we consider that a 
number of fowls in a flock are afi^ected with a disease causing 
emaciation, exhaustion and death, we should suspect tuber- 
culosis. Several methods of diagnosis have been recom- 
mended of which the following have given the best results: 
(a) An affected bird is killed and an autopsy made. The 
tubercular lesions are quite characteristic and the tubercle 
bacilli may be found under the microscope. (5) By use of 
avian tuberculin. This method has been employed quite 
extensively of late. It has been found quite reliable in most 
cases. The tuberculin is injected, using about 0.003 per 
bird, into the deeper layers of the skin of the comb or wattles, 
using a small dental syringe. Care should be observed that 
the needle is not inserted too deeply, or the tubercuHn will 
enter the subcutaneous tissues. On the other hand, it must 
not be too superficial or the epithelial layer will rupture and 
allow the tuberculin to escape. The reaction consists in a 
rounded swelling which develops in twenty-four to seventy- 
two hours at the point of injection. The degree of reaction 
varies with individual cases. 

Differential Diagnosis.— There are several conditions which 
might be confused with avian tuberculosis, viz: (a) Asthenia 
(" going light") which is characterized by gradual emaciation, 
and exhaustion, but negative findings on aut()i)sy. Micro- 
scopic examination will aid in revealing the ditl'erence. (6) 
External parasites when afi'ecting a number of birds in a 



620 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

flock will produce emaciation and a general unthrifty condi- 
tion. Finding the parasites in large numbers, and negative 
autopsy will suffice for differentiation. (c) Rheumatic 
arthritis, or arthritis urica may resemble joint tuberculosis. 
In doubtful cases a microscopic examination (tubercle bacilli) 
may be resorted to. 

Prognosis . — Unfavorable . 

Treatment.— No treatment is of any value after the disease 
has once become established. 

Surgical. —hocsilized abscesses as they occur in parrots 
should be incised freely, and the contents thoroughly removed 
with a curette. Tincture of iodin is applied to abscess 
cavities. 

Prevention.— On account of the disease being difficult to 
diagnose until well established, separation of the sick from 
the healthy birds is not feasible. In valuable birds the 
tuberculin test with segregation should be tried. Removing 
the reactors will assist in controlling the disease. If this 
cannot be done, it is recommended that the entire flock be 
killed, all diseased fowls burned, and the healthy ones sold 
for food. The premises should be thoroughly disinfected, 
buildings, coops, etc., washed with bichlorid solution (1 to 
2000). The soil in the runs should be saturated with liquor 
cresolis compositus (3 per cent.). 

A new flock of birds should not be obtained before at 
least six months have elapsed. Thoroughness in the cleaning 
and disinfection is very important if good results are to be 
expected. 



TUBERCULOSIS OF DOGS AND CATS. 

Occurrence and Form.— Tuberculosis is not very often 
observed in dogs and cats. As the pulmonary form is most 
common, the infection is probably transmitted to the lungs 
on inhaled particles of dust. In some cases, primary involve- 
ment of the digestive tract is found, indicating that the germs 
were probably taken in with the food. Rarely do we find 
infection has taken place through any other channel. 



TUBERCULOSIS OF DOGS AND CATS 621 

Pathogenesis.— Most of the cases no doubt result from 
association with tubercular human beings, or contact with 
infected rooms, etc. It may also result from ingesting meat 
containing the bacilli. 

Pathology.— Two distinct types are found on necropsy: 
(a) Pulmonary form, and (b) digestive form. 

(a) In the pulmonary form the lungs show caseous foci, 
or small miliary nodules. A chronic, indurative broncho- 
pneumonia or a chronic interstitial pneumonia is frequently 
found. Adhesions are common between the lungs and 
parietal pleura. Aside from these lesions there are very often 
present edema and emphysema of the lungs, bronchitis and 
bronchiectasis. The pleura often shows evidence of a serous 
or serofibrinous pleuritis with considerable fluid present in the 
thoracic cavity; or in other cases a dry, granular adhesive 
pleuritis in which the parietal and visceral pleura are adherent. 
Numerous small nodules are often found on the pleura. The 
bronchial lymph glands are more or less enlarged. 

(6) The intestinal lesions are mainly in the mesenteric 
lymph glands, which are enlarged ; the walls of the intestines 
show miliary tuberculosis, particularly on the serous covering ; 
the liver usually presents similar lesions. The spleen and 
kidneys often show miliary tuberculosis. The cadaver in 
general shows evidence of cachexia and emaciation. 

Symptoms.— The disease usually runs a chronic course the 
symptoms developing gradually. General emaciation is 
apparent in spite of a fairly good appetite, the animals become 
easily exhausted, are dyspneic (lung form), and weak. After 
emaciation begins to be a prominent symptom, the form of the 
disease, whether pulmonary or intestinal, will assert itself. 
The pulmonary form is characterized by a short, dry cough, 
which later becomes moist er and is accompanied by a dis- 
charge of a mucopurulent secretion which in most cases is 
swallowed. The respirations grow labored; dry or moist 
rales are heard on ausculation. Percussion reveals areas of 
flatness, and usually hydrothorax. An atypical fever is 
present during the course of the disease. In the intestinal 
form the symptoms of chronic intestinal catarrh are most 



622 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

prominent with diarrhea during the latter stages. Rapid 
emaciation is generally followed by death in a short time. 

Diagnosis.— As tuberculosis is not very common in dogs 
and cats, and the symptoms not particularly characteristic, 
a diagnosis is not often made during life. The history of the 
case and its chronicity might lead one to suspect it. Tuber- 
culin (0.15 to 0.20) might be used subcutaneously. The 
reaction is more prompt but the test is not so reliable as in 
large animals. 

Prognosis. —Unfavorable. 

Treatment.— In advanced cases no treatment should be 
attempted. During the early stages good nutritious food, 
and tonics are best. Inhalations of creolin vapor are recom- 
mendable. 

GLANDERS. 

In dogs and cats glanders is not very common. It is occa- 
sionally observed among carnivora fed meat or organs from 
horses affected with glanders. In zoological gardens glanders 
may be enzootic among meat eating animals, especially 
when horse meat is fed. Glanders usually assumes an acute 
form in these animals. The early s\TQptoms are those of an 
intense inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nasal 
passages, larynx, trachea, and the conjunctiva. In a short 
time (two to five days) appears a greenish-gray or blood- 
stained secretion from the eyes and nose. The respirations 
are labored on account of the intense congestion and swell- 
ing of the respiratory mucous membrane. The s>Tnptoms 
rapidly become aggravated, the tissues about the head 
become swollen, nodules appear at different points in the 
skin, which open and form irregular shaped ulcers. Diarrhea 
is a prominent symptom. The animal becomes emaciated, 
and succumbs in the course of eight to fourteen days. When 
such symptoms occur, the animal should be isolated so that 
further spread of the disease is controlled. Thorough dis- 
infection of the premises, and proper disposition of the 
cadavers are very important. 



PSEUDO-ACTINOMYCOSIS OF DOGS 623 

PSEUDO -ACTINOMYCOSIS OF DOGS. 

Streptotrichosis Canum. Actinomyces Canis. 

Definition.— A specific disease, caused by the Actinomyces 
canis, characterized by an inflammation of serous mem- 
branes, and abscess formation of the subcutaneous tissues. 

Occurrence.— This disease is not of frequent occurrence in 
dogs. A few cases have also been noted in cats. 

Etiology.— The specific virus, Actinomyces canis, produces 
long divided filaments, which are easily stained by the Gram- 
Weigert method. Sometimes they form club-shaped bodies. 
On artificial media the fungus grows at the body temperature. 

Pathogenicity. —When pure cultures are injected intra- 
peritoneally into mice, they produce at the point of inoculation 
nodules of varying size (pea to bean) containing pus. Sub- 
cutaneous injections into rabbits cause at the point of injec- 
tion nodules which form abscesses. The same condition may 
be produced in dogs by subcutaneous injections. 

Pathology.— The lesions usually found are in the pleura or 
peritoneum. They consist of an exudate of reddish color 
collected in the body cavity, containing numerous small, 
white, pin-point nodes. On the serous membrane will be a 
number of small nodules, and on the pleura fibrinous exudate. 
The lungs often contain a number of pea-sized nodes with 
caseous centers. 

Abscess formation occurs in diff'erent parts of the body, 
particularly in the subparotid region, the vagina, or in the 
subperitoneal connective tissue of the pelvis. The abscesses 
contain a grayish turbid mass in which are man}' of the 
characteristic granules. The abscesses usualh' heal after 
discharging their contents. The spleen, kidneys and heart 
muscles often show nodular lesions. Arthritis with pus 
formation is seen in some cases. 

Symptoms.— The disease during the early stages does not 
present any characteristic symptoms. Later, howe^Tr, 
there will be evidence of chronic inflammation of the serous 
membranes with collections of fluid in the thoracic and 
abdominal cavities. As the disease progresses, tlie animal 
shows general emaciation, weakness, and the presence of 



024 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

abscesses in various parts of the body. The inflammation 
of the lungs develops gradualh' and is not attended by any 
marked change in temperature. Dyspnea is a prominent 
symptom. The animal gradually grows weaker and dies from 
exhaustion. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis is established only after finding 
the characteristic granules or filaments in the discharge from 
the abscesses. The symptoms alone would not be sufficient 
for an accurate diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— When the disease shows evidence of general 
involvement of the body, the prognosis is unfavorable. More 
favorable are those cases of localized infection. 

Treatment.— Abscesses should be opened, drained, and the 
cavity painted with tincture of iodin. Potassium iodid (dog 
0.05-0.15; cat 0.005-0.05) given once daily is recommended. 
No further treatment would be of any value. 



CHAPTER V. 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES PRODUCED BY 
PROTOZOA. 

SPIROCHETOSIS OF FOWLS. 

Spirochcetosis Avium. Spirillosis of Chickens. 

Definition.— A fatal septicemia of chickens, ducks, geese, 
and pigeons. 

Occurrence.— This disease has made its appearance in 
several countries in enzootic form. A few outbreaks have 
been observed in the southern part of the United States. 
Up to the present time the disease has not attained economic 
importance in this country. It occurs most commonly in 
chickens where it seriously interferes with breeding. 

Etiology.— The Spirochsete gallinarum (Spirillum anserum) 
is now recognized as the causative agent. This is a blood 
parasite, probably a flagellated protozoon. It appears as 
fine threads, 10 to 20 microns long, spirally formed, and 
provided with one or more cilia which show active move- 
ments. These parasites leave the blood rapidly after the 
fowl's death. 

Pathogenesis.— The disease is easily produced by injections 
of virulent blood from one fowl to another of the same 
species. Older fowls are less susceptible than younger ones. 
The disease develops rapidly following inoculation. After 
the second day larger numbers of the spirillse are found in the 
blood. 

Natural Infection.— The disease is transmitted by ticks; 
mainly by the Argas miniatus, in some cases by the Argas 
persicus and Argas reflexus, and in others by the Ornitlio- 
dorus moubata. The ticks exist in waste jilaces or in wooded 
districts. Fowls become infested by roosting where the ticks 
occur. The ticks attach themselves to the body, and suck 
40 



626 INFECTIOUS DISEASES PRODUCED BY PROTOZOA 

its blood, thus directly inoculating the fowl. The spirillae 
are soon found in the blood. 

Pathology.— The most characteristic lesions on necropsy 
are enlarged spleen and liver, both organs showing numerous 
areas of degeneration and necrosis. The heart muscle shows 
evidence of inflammation. Xo other lesions of importance are 
found. 

Symptoms.— The period of incubation is from eight to ten 
days. Some cases develop in four to six days after the ticks 
have been placed on the fowl. The early symptoms are those 
of suppression of appetite, high temperature (108°-111° F.), 
somnolence, weakness. Later diarrhea sets in; the comb and 
wattles become bluish-red; marked weakness and paralysis. 
During the later stages of the disease the temperature 
becomes normal or subnormal. Death follows in a short 
time in most cases under s^TQptoms of convulsions and para- 
lysis. The majority of cases are acute; a few have been 
observed to assume a chronic type. The coiu-se of the disease 
is usually from fom- to six days in the acute form and ten to 
eighteen days in the chronic. 

Diagnosis.— This is made by noting the enzootic character 
of the disease; the characteristic lesions on autopsy, and the 
finding of the Spirochaetes in the blood of sick birds. 

Prognosis.— The prognosis is unfavorable when the disease 
is well established. Some cases recover. 

Treatment. —At oxyl (0.1 peroremfortwo consecutive doses) 
has been recommended, and has proved to be highly efficient 
in producing immunity from infection in normal fowls. 
Atoxyl (0.05) as an intramuscular injection is recommended 
for infected birds. In two to three days the parasites dis- 
appear from the blood. Atoxylate of mercury has also been 
used in a similar manner. This treatment when properly 
administered will produce excellent results. 

Immunization of fowls with the blood of sick chickens, 
which has been allowed to stand for forty-eight hours, has 
proved of great value. After this period the blood is no 
longer infectious and may be injected subcutaneously into 
healthy fowls. This establishes an immunity against infec- 
tion. 



ENTEROHEPATITIS 627 

A horse serum has been produced (by hyperiramunization 
of the horse with repeated injections of Hve spirillse). In 
doses of 3 to 5 c.c. per bird it has given good results. Immun- 
ization of the flock by this method would be recommended as 
early as possible. 

ENTEROHEPATITIS. 

Blackhead. . 

Definition.— A disease peculiar to turkeys. It is occa- 
sionally observed in other birds, particularly chickens. 

Occurrence.— Blackhead is very prevalent in various scct 
tions of the United States, occurring often in an enzootic 
form destroAing whole flocks, and seriously interfering with 
the raising of turkeys in many districts. It is especially 
fatal in young birds. 

Etiology.— It is produced by a protozoon. Amoeba melea- 
gridis. This parasite is microscopic in size and is found in large 
numbers in the liver, ceca and other portions of the intes- 
tinal tract. Some authorities claim that a coccidium is the 
cause of the disease. When coccidia are present, however, 
the above parasite also coexists which makes it probable 
that the amoeba rather than the coccidia cause the disease. 

Pathogenesis.— Blackhead is spread by the bowel discharges 
of the affected birds which contain the parasites in large 
numbers. Food and water polluted with infested fecal 
matter are taken into the digestive tract of well birds. When 
the amoeba reach the intestinal tract they develop rapidly, 
producing irritation to the mucosa and ultimately lead to a 
marked inflammation. The liver as a rule is invaded during 
the progress of the disease showing intense hepatitis. The 
parasites may enter the liver via the lymphatic system or 
directly through the bile duct. Intermediate agents (other 
birds, sparrows, pigeons, etc.) are often responsible for the 
transmission of the disease to other flocks. 

Necropsy.— The autopsy findings are confined mostly to 
the liver and intestines. The liver is found much enlarged 
(often three to four times normal), the surface studded with 
whitish or yellowish spots, which when opened show degener- 



628 INFECTIOUS DISEASES PRODUCED BY PROTOZOA 

ated areas filled with a soft caseated material. On cross- 
section the liver will show darkened spots often surrounded 
by degenerated areas, giving it a peculiar spotted or marbled 
appearance. The organ is soft, friable, easily crushed between 
the fingers. The infection produces a more or less rapid 
necrosis of the entire liver substance. The ceca are much 
enlarged and the mucosa swollen; later cases show ulceration 
and degeneration of the membrane. Chronic cases exhibit 
extensive ulcerations on various portions of the mucosa. 
The fecal matter in the lower bowels is mixed with blood, 
giving it a dark tarry appearance. The serous membranes 
(pericardium, pleura, peritoneum, etc.) show e^'idence of 
inflammation and effusion of fluid. The cavities (thoracic 
and abdominal) may be partially filled with exudate. In 
chronic cases dropsical swellings are often found in the 
ca\ities and extremities. 

Symptoms.— The disease is most often observed in young 
turkeys, although in some outbreaks older birds are affected. 
The early indications of the disease are purplish discoloration 
of the comb and wattles, dulness, rough plumage, drooping 
of the tail and wings, complete loss of appetite in most cases, 
and a tendency for the bird to remain in a sitting posture for 
long periods. During this period there is nearly always a 
severe diarrhea. The discharges, being greenish-yellow in 
color, have a very offensi^'e odor. The birds gradually grow 
weaker and become exhausted in a few days. Death occurs 
in most cases in three to five days. In less severe, or chronic 
cases, the birds lose their appetite or it becomes irregular, 
and they gradually grow emaciated and weak. Some cases 
will partially recover, and the bird will droop around for 
several weeks. Other cases recover completely from the 
disease. 

Diagnosis.— This is made by considering the enzootic 
character of the disease, its symptoms, and autopsy findings. 
There is no other disease common to turkeys producing such 
serious losses. Whenever the disease is suspected a micro- 
scopic examination should be made of the discharges and 
cecal contents. 



INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA OF CHICKS 629 

Prognosis. — Owing to the high mortaUty of the disease the 
prognosis is unfavorable. Its rapid spread from one bird 
to another, and to other flocks, makes the disease difficult 
to control. The mortality may reach from 50 to 90 per cent. 

Treatment.— Intestinal antiseptics are indicated. Sodium 
sulphocarbolate (0.2-0.4) two or three times daily has 
given good results. Also salol in the same doses. Admin- 
ister sulphate of iron in the drinking water, using one ounce 
of the sulphate of iron to one gallon of water. This has 
proved to be of value as a bowel disinfectant. As soon as 
an outbreak appears, radical means should be adopted at 
once to prevent the spread of the disease. Disinfect the 
coops and houses thoroughly with lysol solution (3 per cent.), 
or lime solution. Clean up all droppings two or three times 
daily and either burn them or bury in lime. Disinfect all 
drinking fountains and feed pans daily. Extreme care must 
be used by attendants to prevent carrying the infection to 
other birds or flocks. Good results often follow when these 
details are carried out conscientiously. 

INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA OF CHICKS. 

White Diarrhea. 

Definition.— An infectious disease affecting young chicks, 
characterized by a severe diarrhea, prostration and high 
mortality. Owing to the fact that it affects chicks shortly 
after being hatched, and such large numbers die, it is 
one of the most important diseases with which the poultry- 
man has to contend. The losses to the poultry industry 
through its ravages are enormous. In some districts it is 
becoming very difficult to rear young chicks. 

Etiology.— It is necessary to recognize two distinct etiolog- 
ical factors, viz: (a) A form produced by the Bacterium 
pullorum, and (b) a protozoal form caused by the Coccidium 
tenellum. Both of these forms are frequently met with in 
practice. The reason the conditions should be classified 
together is because they appear in the same aged birds, 
produce much the same symptoms, and it has been found 



630 INFECTIOUS DISEASES PRODUCED BY PROTOZOA 

that the two diseases often coexist in the same chick. It is 
necessary to differentiate the two conditions by examination 
of the cecal contents for the coccidia, or the hver, spleen and 
kidneys for the bacterium. 

Necropsy.— In the form produced by the Bacterium pul- 
lorum the principal lesions are found in the liver, kidneys, 
spleen and intestinal tract. The liver shows areas of conges- 
tion and fatty degeneration. The kidneys are usually normal 
in size but show some evidence of congestion and cloudy 
swelling. The involvement of the intestinal tract is as a rule 
of minor importance. Therefore, but slight changes are 
found in the majority of cases. The other tissues in the body 
are pale, anemic and show evidence of emaciation. In the 
form produced by the Coccidium tenellum, the most promi- 
nent lesions will be present in the intestinal tract. The mucosa 
is congested and distinct ulcerations are usually present in 
the ceca. The liver, kidneys and musculature show similar 
changes as found in the other form. The intestinal contents 
indicate partial or complete loss in function. 

Pathogenesis.— In the bacillary form it is quite evident 
that the eggs are frequently contaminated in their formative 
stage. When hatched the infection is already present in the 
chick. This no doubt accounts for the large number of chicks 
that succumb to the disease so soon after they are hatched. 
This mode of infection is explained by the fact that the laying 
hens carry the infection in some of the organs, probably the 
ovaries, which permit the organisms to pass to the eggs 
during the early stage of their development. The bacilli 
have been found in the yolks of eggs. It is quite possible 
to have other modes of transmission of the infection, such 
as the infection being carried on the outside of the egg shell 
and when the bird is liberated it becomes infected. Many 
cases are infected from the water, feed, or discharges from 
the diseased chicks. The infection, w^hen introduced into 
the delicate digestive tract of the chick, develops rapidly 
and interferes with the early digestion of the food. Natu- 
rally assimilation is practically stopped and the bird rapidly 
becomes weak and emaciated. It has been proved that 
during the first few days of the chick's life its principal 



INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA OF CHICKS 631 

source of food supply is from the yolk of the egg from which 
it is hatched. The infection is carried to the other organs by 
the blood or lymph systems. 

The coccidial form develops in a similar manner. Numer- 
ous examinations have proved that laying hens are often 
chronic carriers of the coccidia which are passed out either 
with the eggs, or with the discharges. The food, water, litter, . 
etc., are contaminated and therefore easily picked up by the 
chick during the first week or ten days of its life. The 
coccidia, when introduced into the digestive tract, develop 
in a few hours and penetrate into the mucosa which accounts 
for the digestive disturbances. Both forms of the disease 
result in intestinal irritation, congestion, and disturbed 
function. 

Symptoms.— The early indication of the disease is the 
presence of a whitish, or whitish-brown, frothy discharge 
from the bowels. Examination of the chick reveals the soft, 
pasty mass adhering around the cloaca and on the feathers. 
They are dull, wings held pendent, head held down and more 
or less constantly emitting a peculiar "peeping" sound. 
The appetite is suppressed or entirely lost. The chicks 
rapidly become weak, often fall down when urged to move, 
and show every evidence of general cachexia. Death follows 
often in a few days following hatching. Other cases when 
infected later often are normal during the first few days or 
week only to take the disease in two to four weeks, showing 
practically the same symptoms. The mortality is 50 to 90 
per cent, of the hatch. In order to determine the presence 
of the bacilli or coccidia, a microscopic examination should 
be made of the discharges, cecal contents, or cultures taken 
from the organs. 

Diagnosis.— This is not considered difficult as the disease 
makes its appearance soon after the chicks are hatched, and 
the fact that a number of them are afi'ected at the same time. 
The symptoms are also quite characteristic. There is no 
similar disease affecting young chicks at this age, except 
possibly ptomain poisoning. A microscopic examination will 
assist in making the diagnosis. 



632 INFECTIOUS DISEASES PRODUCED BY PROTOZOA 

Prognosis.— Due to the character of the disease and the 
high mortahty the prognosis is unfavorable. It will depend 
to some extent on the age of the chicks and the virulency 
of the infection. 

Treatment.— 7) ze^e^ic— Withhold all food from the chicks 
during the first two or three days. They have sufficient food 
from the yolk of the egg to sustain them for this period. 
Afterward feed small amounts of egg yolk, or bread and milk. 
Buttermilk or sour milk is highly recommended on account 
of the acid it contains producing antiseptic action on the 
bowel contents. A small amount of lactic acid added to 
sweet milk will have a similar action. Buttermilk tablets are 
recommended so that a uniform quantity of sour milk may 
be kept for their use daily. These when added to sweet milk 
bring about sufficient fermentation in twelve to twenty-four 
hours. It is quite important that they do not receive too 
much food during the first week to bring on digestive dis- 
turbances, thereby lowering the natural resistance of the 
chick. 

Medical.— Zinc sulphocarbolate or sodium sulphocarbo- 
late has given excellent results. It is best given by dissolving 
the preparation in water and allowing the chicks to drink 
of the solution freely. Each chick should receive from three 
to five grains of the compound one or twice daily. When the 
diarrhea is severe iron sulphate in the drinking water (30.0 
to 4000.0) is beneficial as an antiseptic and astringent. 

In the coccidial form the following formula is highly 
recommended : 

^ — Potassi dichromate 12.0 

Water 250.0 

Misce et fiat solutio. 
Sig. — Use one teaspoonful to 1 quart of water for chicks one week old. 
Younger chicks half the quantity. Allow them to drink of this solution 
freely. 

Prevention.— Much can be done to prevent the disease 
developing in young chicks: (a) All incubators should be 
thoroughly disinfected by washing all parts of them with a 
liquor cresolis compositus solution (3 per cent.). Allow them 
to dry out thoroughly before using. Another very effective 



PIROPLASMOSIS OF THE DOG 633 

method is to close them up tight and introduce formaldehyd 
gas. Incubators have proved to be common carriers of the 
infection, therefore attention to this matter is especially 
important, (b) All eggs selected for hatching should be 
cleaned and disinfected in the following manner: Saturate 
a cloth in 50 per cent, alcohol and wipe each egg carefully 
before placing it in the incubator. Do not use an excess of 
alcohol as it will penetrate the egg shell. This treatment 
will effectively remove all surface infection, (c) All coops, 
houses, nests, etc., should be disinfected at regular intervals. 
(d) When possible it would be advisable to select hens as 
layers that are free from the disease. This can be done quite 
efficiently by examining samples of eggs, discharges, aggluti- 
nation test, etc. (e) All litter from infected houses, coops, 
etc., should either be burned or treated with lime to pre- 
vent the perpetuation of the disease. 

PIROPLASMOSIS OF THE DOG. 

Infectious Jaundice. Biliary Fever. Malignant Jaundice. 

Definition.— A malignant or infectious disease of the dog 
produced by the Piroplasma canis or Piroplasma commune. 

Etiology.— Piroplasmosis of the dog has been reported in 
several different countries. It is produced by two species of 
piroplasma or Babesia: Piroplasma canis and Piroplasma 
commune. Morphologically these parasites are identical 
with Piroplasma bigeminum. The Piroplasma canis is 2-4 
microns in diameter, the free organisms spherical, and those 
contained within the corpuscles are pear-shaped or contain 
many angles. Multiplication is by direct division. The 
Piroplasma commune is similar, round or pear-shaped. The 
round type is 1.0-1.5 microns, and the pear-shaped 1.5-2.5 
microns in diameter. The former is not transmissible to any 
other animal while the latter has been transmitted to the 
guinea pig and cat. 

Dogs become infected from ticks and fleas (Ixodes ricinus, 
Rhi[)i('e[)halus sanguineus, Dermacentor variabiHs, ITaema- 
physalis Leachi, ('tenoce])halus canis), which have been found 
to be common carriers of the disease. Young animals 



634 INFECTIOUS DISEASES PRODUCED BY PROTOZOA 

(puppies) are most susceptible and often an entire litter will 
develop the disease. Older animals are partially or com- 
pletely immune. The disease may be readily transmitted 
by injecting young animals with virulent blood. The initial 
symptoms develop in two to three days. Natural infection 
takes place from animals coming in contact with fleas or 
ticks infested with the piroplasm. The period of incubation 
from natural infection is from seven to ten days. 

Pathology.— In the acute form the disease process is often 
so rapid that but little will be found on postmortem examina- 
tion. The liver is found congested, the bile of dark color and 
thick. The spleen is enlarged often tw^o or three times its 
normal size; the color is dark, the borders rounded. The 
kidneys are congested, and small hemorrhages are noted on 
the surface. The heart muscle is pale, and small petechise 
and ecch\Tnoses are observed on the endo- and epicardium. 
The lungs are usually edematous, and ecch\Tnoses occur on 
the membranes. The bladder contains a reddish-brown 
colored urine, especially in the very acute form of the disease. 
The skin and mucous membranes are greenish in color, which 
in some cases may be absent, the membranes very pale and 
anemic. In the chronic form the postmortem lesions are 
those of an anemia, with a paleness of all the tissues and 
organs. The liver is found intensely congested, the bile of a 
syrupy consistency and very dark in color. The blood 
from the spleen will contain large numbers of the parasites. 
The kidneys, heart and lungs are congested and show num- 
erous small hemorrhages on their surfaces. The marrow 
of the bones is intensely congested, and of a dark reddish 
color. In the chronic form icteric s^Tnptoms are also 
observed. The blood has a thin, watery appearance, the 
serum practically colorless. 

Symptoms.— The initial sjinptoms of the acute form are 
those of a severe infectious disease: Depression, loss of 
appetite, often severe vomiting. Paralysis of the posterior 
extremities often takes place early (in eighteen to twenty- 
four hours) and ascends rapidly producing a general 
paralysis in three to four days. In the more subacute form 
the s}Tnptoms are less pronounced, presenting all the evi- 



PIROPLASMOSIS OF THE DOG 635 

dences of an acute anemia, the mucous membranes becoming 
pale, colorless, or bluish. The most common change in the 
mucous membranes, however, is icteric discoloration. A 
characteristic s}Tnptom is the blood coloring matter in the 
urine, which turns it pale red or reddish-brown. The hemo- 
globin found in the urine is rather high (5 per cent.). The 
temperature in the early stages is elevated (103°-105° F.). 
It remains elevated usually for twenty-four to forty-eight 
hours, when it drops suddenly and becomes subnormal. In 
young dogs the temperature drops very rapidly, as low as 
95°-96° F. The pulse is increased, weak and wiry; the 
respirations 36 to 60 and often labored. 

The blood is thin and paler than normal. The number of 
the red corpuscles is greatly reduced (from 5-7 million to 
2 million per c), the white corpuscles greatly increased 
(from 6-7000 to 40,000 per c). 

In the chronic form the symptoms are less pronounced. 
There are evidences of anemia, the animals become weak 
and indifferent to their surroundings. The mucous mem- 
branes are usually pale or yellowish, and sometimes of a 
bluish color. The urine contains blood-coloring matter, 
which seems to be a constant symptom. The blood when 
examined will be found to have a great reduction in the 
number of red corpuscles, but less than in the acute form, 
and the white corpuscles are about in the same ratio as in 
the acute form. Most of the white corpuscles are found to 
be polynuclear, and are often almost completely filled with 
the parasites. The course- in this form may be long, lasting 
for days or weeks, the animals gradually recovering or dying 
of marasmus. 

Diagnosis. —The diagnosis is made by carefully observing 
the symptoms, the fact that the disease occurs in several 
animals at the same time, and the microscopic examination 
of the blood to determine the ratio between the red and white 
corpuscles, and the presence of the specific parasite. Some- 
times it is difficult to find the parasite from a clinical case 
under the microscope. In such cases it is of advantage to 
confirm the diagnosis by hioculating a young puppy with 
some of the blood of the affected anhnal. The virulent 



636 INFECTIOUS DISEASES PRODUCED BY PROTOZOA 

blood should be injected into the circulation to obtain the 

most accurate and rapid results. 

Prognosis. — In the acute form, the prognosis is very imfavor- 
able, the animals grow weak rapidly, and die from exhaustion 
m from three to six days. In the chronic form recovery often 
takes place after several weeks. 

Treatment.— In the acute form, treatment has but little 
effect on the course of the disease. S^Ttlptomatic treatment 
must be used. When there is extreme weakness and sub- 
normal temperature stimulants, such as strychnin sulphate 
(0.001 subcutaneously) , or diffusible stimulants should be 
given as often as necessary to keep up the circulation and 
general condition of the animal. Quinin (0.3-1.0) two or 
three times daily has been highly recommended. 

The treatment in the chronic form is very similar. Plenty 
of good nutritious food should be given to conserve the 
strength of the patient. 



EQUIVALENT OF METRIC WEIGHTS 



637 



EQUIVALENTS OF APOTHECARIES IN METRIC MEASURES. 





Cubic 




Cubic 


(linims. 


Centimeters. 


Fluidrams. 


Centimeters 


1 . . . 


. . . 0.061 


1 . . . . 


. . 3.7 


2 . . . 


. . . 0.123 


2 . . . . 


. . 7.39 


3 . . 


. . . 0.185 


3 . . . . 


. . 11.09 


4 . . 


. . . 0.246 


4 . . . . 


. . 15.00 


5 . . 


. . . 0.308 


5 . . . . 


. . 18.50 


6 . . 


. . . 0.370 


6 . . . . 


. . 22.50 


7 . . • 


. . . 0.431 


7 . . . . 


. . 26.00 


8 . . . 


. . . 0.493 






9 . . . 


. . . 0.554 




Cubic 


10 . . . 


. . . 0.616 


Fluidounces. 


Centimeters 


11 . . . 


. . . 0.678 


1 . . . . 


. . 29.57 


12 . . . 


. . . 0.739 


2 . . . . 


. . 59.14 


13 . . . 


. . . 0.801 


3 . . . . 


. . 89.00 


14 . . . 


. . . 0.863 


4 . . . . 


. . 118.29 


15 . . . 


. . . 0.924 


5 . . . . 


. . 148.00 


16 . . . 


. . . 1.00 


6 . . . . 


. . 177.42 


17 . . . 


. . . 1.06 


7 . . . . 


. . 207.00 


18 . . . 


. . . 1.12 


8 . . . . 


. . 236.59 


20 . . . 


. . . 1.23 


9 . . . . 


. . 266.16 


30 . . . 


... 1.84 


10 ... . 


. . 295.73 


40 . . . 


. . . 2.46 


12 ... . 


. . 355.00 


50 . . . 


... 3.08 


16 ... . 


. . 473.17 






20 ... . 


. . 591.50 






24 ... . 


. . 710.00 






32 ... . 


. . 946.35 



128 3785.43 



EQUIVALENTS OF APOTHECARIES IN METRIC WEIGHTS. 



Grain. 
1-1000 
1-500 
1-250 
1-200 
1-150 
1-120 
1-100 
1-75 
1-60 
1-50 
1-40 
1-30 
1-25 
1-20 
1-12 
1-10 
1-8 
1-6 
1-5 
1-4 
1-3 



Grams. 

.000065 

.000129 

.000258 

.000324 

.00043 

.00054 

.00064 

.00086 

.00108 

.00129 

.00162 

.00216 

.00259 

.00324 

.00540 

.00649 

.0081 

.0108 

.0129 

.0162 

.0216 



Grain. 
•1-2 
1 

2 . 

3 . 
4 

5 

6 . 

7 . 



G 



9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



rams. 
.0324 
.0648 
.1296 
.1944 
.2592 
.3240 
.3888 
.4536 
.5184 
.5832 
.6480 
.7128 
.7776 
.8424 
.9072 
.9720 
. 2960 
. 6200 
.9440 
. 2680 
.2920 



638 EQUIVALEXTS OF METRIC WEIGHTS 

Grain. Grams. Ounces. Grams. 

45 2.9160 3 93.310 

50 3.2400 4 124.414 

55 3.5640 .5 155.517 

59 3.8232 6 186.631 

7 217.724 



8 248.828 

9 279.930 

10 311.035 

11 342.138 

12 373.242 

14 435.449 

16 497.656 

20 622.070 

24 746.484 

32 . . . . : . 995.312 

Ounces. Grams. 48 1492.968 

1 31.103 64- 1990.624 

2 62.207 100 3110.350 



Drams. Grams. 

1 3.88 

2 7.776 

3 11.664 

4 15.552 

5 19.440 

6 23.328 

7 27.216 



INDEX. 



Abscess of cornea, 534 
of kidney, 396 
of liver, 236 
renal, 397 
Acne, 468 

definition, 468 
etiology, 468, 469 
pathology, 469 
prognosis, 469 
symptoms, 469 
treatment, 469 
Actinomyces canis, 623 
Adhesions of eyeHds, 504, 505 
ankyloblepharon, 505 

treatment, 505 
symblepharon, 505 
treatment, 505, 506 
Alopecia, 465 
definition, 465 
diagnosis, 466 

differential, 466 
etiology, 465 
pathology, 465 
prognosis, 466 
symptoms, 465, 466 
treatment, 466 
Alveolar periostitis, 108 
Amaurosis, 547 
Amblyopia, 547 
Amyloid kidney, 407 
liver, 242 

definition, 242 
etiology, 242 
pathology, 242, 243 
symptoms, 243 
Anal glands, suppuration of, 

224 
Anemia, 319 
of brain, 437 



223, 



Anemia of brain, definition, 437 
etiology, 437 
pathology, 438 
prognosis, 438 
symptoms, 438 
treatment, 438 
cerebral, 437 
course, 321 
definition, 319 
diagnosis, 321 
etiology, 319, 320 
occurrence, 319 
pathology, 320 
prognosis, 321 
symptoms, 320, 321 
treatment, 321, 322 
Animal parasites in blood, 330 
in kidney, 407 

in trachea and bronchial tubes, 
42 
Ankyloblepharon, 505 
Ankylostoma canina, 207 
Ankylostomum stenocephalum, 207 

trigonacephalum, 207 
Anthrax, 599 
Aphtha, 100 
Aphthaj epizooticae, 600 
Apoplexia hepatis, 246 
Apoplexy, 440 
definition, 440 
diagnosis, 441 
etiology, 440 
pathology, 440 
prognosis, 441 
symptoms, 440, 441 
treatment, 441 
Arthritis, 383 

urica, 354 
Articular rheumatism, 363 
Articulations, dislocation of, 378 
cuudul vertcbrio, 383 



640 



IXDEX 



Articulations, dislocations of, cau- 
dal coxofemoral, 381 
etiolog:}-, 38 1 
prognosis. 381 
s}TQptonLS. 381 
treatment. 382 
humero-radio-ulnar, 379, 380 
etiolog}-, 380 
prognosis, 380 
s^TQptoros. 380 
treatment, 380 
patellar. 382 
etiolog}'. 382 
prognosis, 382 
s}Tnptoms, 382 
treatment, 382, 383 
phalangeal. 381 
radio-uinar-carpal, 380 
diagnosis. 380 
s^TQptoms, 380 
treatment, 380. 381 
scapulohumeral, 379 
etiology, 379 
prognosis, 379 
SATQptoms, 379 
treatment, 379 
temporomaxillary, 378 
etiolog}-, 378 
prognosis, 378 
S}TQptoms, 378 
treatment, 378 
tibiotarsal. 383 
vertebral, 379 
inflammation of, 383 
sprains and injuries to, 377 
course, 377 
prognosis, 377 
s}TQptoms, 377 
treatment. 377 
wounds of, 376 
diagnosis, 376 
etiology-, 376 
prognosis, 376 
s>Tnptoms, 376 
treatment, 376, 377 
Ascaridae. 201 
Ascites. 257 
definition, 257 
diagnosis, 259, 260 
etiology-, 257, 258 
pathology-, 258 
prognosis, 260 
symptoms, 258, 259 



Ascites, treatment, 260, 261 
Aspergillosis. 40 

Asthenia, infectious, of birds, 191 
definition. 191 
diagnosis. 191, 192 
etiolog^', 191 
pathologA', 191 
prevention, 192 
prognosis, 192 
s^Tuptoms, 191 
treatment, 192 
Atrophy of Hver, 240 
definition, 240 
cha gnosis. 241 
etiolog}-, 240. 241 
patholog}', 241 
prognosis, 241 
s}TQptoms, 241 
treatment, 241 
of optic nerve, 547 
~ definition, 547 
prognosis, 547 
Auditory nerve, paralysis of, 453 
A^■ian tuberctilosis, 616 



B 



Bal_\xitis. 265 
Basedow's disease, 343 
Belascaris marginata, 202 

myxtax. 202 
Benign neoplasms of mouth, 102 
timiors of mammary glands, 317 
fibromata. 3i7, 318 
hpoma, 318 
Bihary fever, 633 
Black tongue, 579 
Blackhead. 627 
Bladder, calcuh in, 420 
catarrh of, 416 
diseases of, 410 

examination, 410, 411, 412 
by laparotomy, 411 
by palpation, 410, 411 
of urine. 411, 412 
incontinence of urine in, 416 
parasites in. 423. 424 
retention of urine in. 414 
rupture of^ 412 
torsion of, 420 
tumors in. 423 



INDEX 



G41 



Bladder, wounds of, 412 
Blennorrhea, 512 
Blepharitis, 498 
definition, 498 
etiolog\^, 498 
prognosis, 498 
symptoms, 498 
treatment, 498, 499 
Blepharoptosis, 501 
Blepharospasm, 503 
Bothriocephalus felis, 197 
Brachial plexus, paralysis of, 455 
Brain, anemia of, 437 
congestion of, 435 
diseases of, 431 
examination, 432, 433, 434,435 
psychic disturbances, 433 
sensibiHty, 433, 434, 435 
general considerations, 431,432 
cerebellum, 432 
cortex, 431, 432 
midbrain, 432 
hyperemia of, 435 
tumors of, 441, 442 
Brittleness of bones, 362 
Bronchial catarrh of birds, 38 
tubes and trachea, animal para- 
sites in, 42 
Bronchitis, 38 
and tracheitis, 34 
acute, 34 
chronic, 44 
Bronchocele, 336 
Bronchopneumonia, 53 
definition, 53 
diagnosis, 56 
etiology, 53, 54 
pathology, 54, 55 
prognosis, 56 
symptoms, 55, 56 
treatment, 56 
Bulbar paralysis, infectious, 611 



Calculi in bladder, 420 

etiology, 420, 421 

forms and varieties, 421 
acid urine calculi, 421 
alkaline urine calculi, 421 

prognosis, 422 

symptoms, 421, 422 

41 



Calculi in bladder, treatment, 422, 

423 
in kidney, 402 

definition, 402 

diagnosis, 403 

etiology, 402 

pathology, 402 

prognosis, 403 

symptoms, 402, 403 

treatment, 403, 404 
in urethra, 427 

prognosis, 428 

symptoms, 427, 428 

treatment, 428, 429 
Canine typhus, 579 
Canker, 593 

of mouth, 97 
Caponizing, 276, 277, 278 
Carcinomata of bladder, 423 
of eyehds, 509 
of mammary glands, 318 
of penis and prepuce, 269 
of scrotum and testes, 273 
Caries of teeth, 109 

definition, 109 

etiology, 109 

pathology, 109, 110 

symptoms, 110 

treatment, 110 
Castration, 273 

of birds, 276, 277, 278 
of cat, 275, 276 
of dog, 274, 275 

cryptorchid, 275 

monorchid, 275 
Catalepsy, 460 
course, 460 
definition, 46o 
diagnosis, 460 
etiology, 460 
pathology, 460 
prognosis, 460 
s>Taptoms, 460 
treatment, 460 
Cataract, 542 
course, 543 
definition, 542 
forms, 542 

congenital, 543 

diabetic, 543 

senile, 542 

symptomatic, 542 

traumatic, 542 



642 



INDEX 



Cataract, prognosis, 543 
symptoms, 543 
treatment, 543, 544 
discission, 543, 544 
extraction, 544 
Catarrh of bladder, 416 
definition, 416 
diagnosis, 419 
etiology, 416, 417 
pathology-, 417, 418 
prognosis, 419 
s^TQptoms, 418, 419 
treatment, 419, 420 
bronchial, of birds, 38 
definition, 38 
diagnosis, 39 
etiolog}', 39 
prognosis, 39 
s}TQptoms, 39 
treatment, 39, 40 
chronic, of stomach, 146 
of crop in birds, 137 
defuiition, 137 
diagnosis, 138 
etiology-, 137, 138 
prognosis, 138 
s^Taptoms, 138 
treatment, 138, 139 
nasal, acute, 19 
definition, 19 
diagnosis, 19 
etiology, 19 
prognosis, 19 
symptoms, 19 
treatment, 19, 20 
chronic ; 23 
definition, 23 
diagnosis, 24 
etiology, 23 
pathology, 23 
prognosis, 24 
symptoms, 23, 24 
treatment, 24 
of rabbits, 20 
infectious, 20 
definition, 20 
diagnosis, 21 
etiolog\^ 20, 21 
necrops}'. 21 
prognosis, 21 
prophylaxis, 22 
sjTuptoms, 21 
treatment, 21 



Catarrh, nasal, of rabbits, para- 
sitic, 22 
definition, 22 
diagnosis, 23 
etiolog}', 22 
prevention, 23 
prognosis, 23 
S3Tiiptoms, 22 
treatment, 23 
preputial,, 265 
definition, 265 
etiologj^ 265, 266 
prognosis, 266 
symptoms, 266 
treatment, 266 
simple, of stomach, 142 
Catarrhal conjunctivitis, 511 
pneumonia, 53 
stomatitis, 94 
Caudal vertebrae, dislocation of,383 
Cerebral anemia, 437 

hemorrhage, 440 
Cestoda, 193, 194, 195 
species, 195 
taeniae, 195 

in intestine of birds, 198 
of cats, 197 
of dogs, 195, 196, 197 
of rabbits, 197, 198 
Chalazion of eyelids, 507 
Chicken-pox, 593 

Choanotaenia infundibulifonnis,198 
CholeHthiasis, 245 
SATuptoms, 245 
treatment, 245 
Cholera, fowl, 584 
gaUinarum. 584 
Chorea, 461 ' 
definition, 461 
diagnosis, 461 
etiology-, 461 
pathologA', 461 
prognosis, 461 
sjTuptoms, 461 
treatment, 461 
Chronic catarrh of stomach, 146 
corA'za, 23 

dilatation of stomach, 154 
dyspepsia, 146 
enteritis, 173 
gastritis, 146 
interstitial hepatitis, 243 
pneumonia, 57 



INDEX 



643 



•Chronic metritis, 296 
nasal catarrh^ 23 
peritonitis, 255 
pharyngitis, 125 
rhinitis, 23 

tracheitis and bronchitis, 44 
Cirrhosis of hver, 243 
definition, 243 
diagnosis, 244 
etiology, 243 
pathology, 243 
prognosis, 244 
symptoms, 243, 244 
treatment, 244 
of lungs, 57 
definition, 57 
diagnosis, 58 
etiology, 57, 58 
pathology, 58 
prognosis, 58 
symptoms, 58 
treatment, 58 
Cittotsenia denticulata, 197 
Coccidia in kidney, 409 
Coccidium tenellum in kidney, 409 
Comb disease, 484 

white, 484 
Compression of peripheral nerves, 
450 
of spinal cord, 448 
definition, 448 
diagnosis, 449 
etiology, 448, 449 
pathogenesis, 449 
prognosis, 449 
symptoms, 449 
treatment, 449 
Concha, ulceration of, 488 
Concussion of spinal cord, 445 
course, 447 
diagnosis, 447 
etiology, 445 
pathogenesis, 446 
prognosis, 447 
symptoms, 446, 447 
treatment, 448 
Congenital defects of iris, 539 
malformations of penis and pre- 
puce, 265 
of urethra, 425 
of vagina and vulva, 309 
Congestion of brain, 435 
of kidney, 387 



Congestion of liver, 231 
active, 231 

course, 232 

definition, 231 

diagnosis, 232 

etiology, 231 

pathology, 231 

prognosis, 232 

symptoms, 232 

treatment, 232, 233 
passive, 233 

definition, 233 

diagnosis, 234 

etiology, 233 

pathology, 233, 234 

prognosis, 234 

symptoms, 234 

treatment, 235 
of lungs, 49 
active, 49 

diagnosis, 50 

etiology, 49 

pathology, 49 

prognosis, 50 

symptoms, 49, 50 

treatment, 50 
passive, 50 

diagnosis, 51 

etiology, 50, 51 

pathology, 51 

prognosis, 51 

symptoms, 51 

treatment, 51, 52 
of mammary glands, 316 
of thyroid glands, 334, 335 
Conjunctiva, corrosions and burns 
of, 521 
diseases of, 510 

examination, 510 
foreign bodies in, 519, 520 
growths on, 522 
traumatic lesions of, 519 
tumors on, 522 
ulceration of, 521 
wounds on, 520 
Conjunctivitis, 510 
definition, 510 
forms, 510 
catarrhal, 511 

etiology, 511 

prognosis, 511 

symptoms, 511 

treatment, 511, 512 



644 



INDEX 



Conjunctivitis, forms, croupous, 
516 
definition, 516 
etiology, 516 
prognosis, 516 
symptoms, 516 
treatment, 516 
erysipelatous, 514 
exanthematous, 518 
definition, 518 
treatment, 519 
follicular, 517 
definition, 517 
etiology, 517 
prognosis, 517 
symptoms, 517 
treatment, 517, 518 
parenchymatous, 514 
definition, 514, 515 
etiology, 515 
prognosis, 515 
symptoms, 515 
treatment, 515, 516 
purulent, 512 
acute, 512 

definition, 512 
etiology, 512 
prognosis, 513 
symptoms, 512, 513 
treatment, 513, 514 
chronic, 514 
prognosis, 514 
symptoms, 514 
treatment, 514 
Constipation, 182 
defiiiition, 182 
diagnosis, 183 
etiology, 182 
pathology, 182 
prognosis, 183 
symptoms, 182, 183 
treatment, 183, 184, 185 
Contagious epithelioma, 593 
Cornea, abscess of, 534 
diseases of, 526 

examination, 526 
ectasia of, 537 
foreign bodies of, 535 
opacities of, 536 
tumors of, 538 
ulceration of, 532 
wounds of, 535 
Cornua uteri, torsion of, 302 



Corrosions and burns of conjunc- 
tiva, 521 
treatment, 521 
Coryza, 19 

chronic, 19 
Coxofemoral dislocation, 381 
Cranial bones, fracture of, 368 
Crop, catarrh of, in birds, 137 

hard, 139 

obstruction of, in birds, 139 

soft, 137 
Croupous conjunctivitis, 516 

enteritis of cats, 190 

pharyngitis of birds, 127 
Ctenocephalus canis of dog, 472, 
633 

fehs of cat, 472 
Cuterebra emasculator, 273 
Cyclitis, 540 
Cystic goiter, 339 

kidney, 405 
Cysticercus cellulosse in kidney, 409 
Cystitis, 416 
Cysts of ear, 494 

of eyehds, 507 
Meibomian, 507 
pilosebaceous, 507 

of iris, 541 

of ovaries, 284 

retention, in mouth, 103 

of uterine tubes, 291 



D 



Dacryocystitis, 525 

definition, 525 

prognosis, 525 

symptoms, 525 

treatment, 525 
Dandruff, 464 

definition, 464 

diagnosis, 464 

etiology, 464 

prognosis, 464 

symptoms, 464 

treatment, 464, 465 
Davainea cesticillus, 198 

crassula, 198 

echinobothrida, 198 

proglottina, 198 

tetragona, 198 
Deafness, 495 



INDEX 



645 



Deafness, etiology, 495 
prognosis, 495 
symptoms, 495 
treatment, 495 
Defects, congenital, of iris, 539 
aniridia, 539 
coloboma, 539 
ectopic pupillse, 539 
occlusion of pupil, 539 
Demodex folliculorum, 480 

mite, 480 
Dermacentor variabilis, 633 
Dermatitis, 466 
definition, 466 
diagnosis, 468 
etiology, 466, 467 
pathology, 467 
prognosis, 468 
symptoms, 467, 468 
treatment, 468 
Dermatomycosis, 482 
definition, 482 
examination, 482 
Diabetes, 347 
definition, 347 
insipidus, 347 
course, 349 
definition, 347 
diagnosis, 349 
etiology, 347, 348 
occurrence, 347 
pathology, 348 
prognosis, 349 
symptoms, 348, 349 
treatment, 349, 350 
melHtus, 350 
course, 351 
definition, 350 
diagnosis, 351 
etiology, 350 
occurrence, 350 
pathology, 350 
prognosis, 351 
symptoms, 350, 351 
treatment, 351, 352 
Diaphragmatic hernia, 563 
Diarrhea, 178 
definition, 178 
diagnosis, 181 
etiology, 178, 179, 180 
infectious, of chicks, 629 
definition, 629 
diagnosis, 631 



Diarrhea, infectious, of chicks, 
etiology, 629, 630 
necropsy, 630 
pathogenesis, 630, 631 
prevention, 632, 633 
prognosis, 632 
symptoms, 631 
treatment, 632 
prognosis, 181 
symptoms, 180 
treatment, 181 
white, 629 
Dicranotsenia sphenoides, 198 
Dilatation and diverticula of esoph- 
agus, 136 
definition, 136 
diagnosis, 137 
etiology, 136, 137 
prognosis, 137 
symptoms, 137 
treatment, 137 
of stomach, 152 
acute, 152 
diagnosis, 154 
etiology, 152, 153 
pathology, 153 
prognosis, 154 
symptoms, 153, 154 
treatment, 154 
chronic, 154 
diagnosis, 157 
etiolog}'-, 154, 155 
pathology, 155, 156 
prognosis, 157 
symptoms, 156 
treatment, 157 
Dioctophyme renale, in bladder,423 

in kidney, 407 
Diphtheria, 593 
Dipylidium caninum, 195 
Dirofilaria immitis in blood, 330 
Dislocation of articulations, 378 
Dispharagus nasutus in stomach of 
birds, 163 
spiralis in stomach of birds, 163 
Distemper of cats, 577 
definition, 577 
diagnosis, 578 
etiology, 577 
pathology, 577 
l)rognosis, 578 
symptoms, 577, 578 
treatment, 578, 579 



646 



INDEX 



Distemper of dogs, 565 
definition, 565 
diagnosis, 572, 573 
etiology, 565, 566 
natural infection, 566 
necropsy, 566, 567 
occurrence, 565 
prevention, 577 
prognosis, 573 
symptoms, 567, 568, 569, 570, 

571, 572 
treatment, 573, 574, 575, 576 
rabbit, 20 
Districhiasis, 504 
Diverticula of esophagus, 136 
Dochmius trigonacephalus, 207 
Dog plague, 579 
Dropsy of kidney, 405 
definition, 405 
diagnosis, 406 
etiology, 405, 406 
pathology, 406 
prognosis, 406 
symptoms, 406 
treatment, 406 
of pericardium, 76 
Dyspepsia, acute, 142 

chronic, 146 
Dystocia, 305 
definition, 305 
diagnosis, 307 
etiology, 305, 306 
prognosis, 307 
symptoms, 306, 307 
treatment, 307, 308 



E 



Ear, diseases of, 487 
examination, 487 
fistula, 495 
etiology, 495 
prognosis, 496 
symptoms, 496 
treatment, 496 
neoplasms of, 493 
parasites in, 494 
wounds of, 487, 488 
Echinococcus granulosus, 197 
Echinorhynchus canis, 202 
Eclampsia, 461 
definition, 461 



Eclampsia, diagnosis, 462 
etiology, 462 
prognosis, 462 
symptoms, 462 
treatment, 462 
Ectasia of cornea, 537 
inflammatory, 537 
forms, 537 

keratectasia, 537 
definition, 537, 538 
treatment, 538 
staphyloma, 537 
definition, 537 
treatment, 537 
non-inflammatory, 538 
forms, 538 

keratoconus, 538 
keratoglobus, 538 
treatment, 538 
Ectropion, 500 
Eczema, 469 
definition, 469 
diagnosis, 471 
etiology, 470 
pathology, 470 
prognosis, 471 
symptoms. 470 
treatment, 471 
Edema of lungs, 52 

pulmonary, 52 
Eimeria avium in kidney, 409 
Empyema of infraorbital fossae of 
birds, 20 
definition, 20 
etiology, 20 
prognosis, 20 
symptoms, 20 
treatment, 20 
Endocarditis, acute, 85 
definition, 85 
diagnosis, 88 
etiology, 85, 86 
necropsy, 86, 87 
prognosis, 88 
symptoms, 87, 88 
treatment, 88, 89 
Enophthalmus, 551 
definition, 551 
etiology, 551 
prognosis, 552 
symptoms, 551 
treatment, 552 
Enteritis, 167 



INDEX 



647 



Enteritis, acute, 167 
definition, 167, 168 
diagnosis, 171 
etiology, 168, 169 
pathology, 169 
prognosis, 171 
symptoms, 169, 170, 171 
treatment, 171, 172, 173 
chronic, 173 
definition, 173 
diagnosis, 174, 175 
etiology, 173 
pathology, 173, 174 
prognosis, 175 
symptoms, 174 
treatment, 175 
croupous, of cats, 190 
definition, 190 
diagnosis, 190 
etiology, 190 
pathology, 190 
prognosis, 190 
symptoms, 190 
treatment, 191 
membranous, 190 
Enterohepatitis, 627 
definition, 627 
diagnosis, 628 
etiology, 627 
necropsy. 627^ 628 
occurrence, 627 
pathogenesis, 627 
prognosis, 629 
symptoms, 628 
treatment, 629 
Enterorrhagia, 175 
Entropion, 499 
Epilepsy, 458 
definition, 458 
diagnosis, 459 
etiology, 458 
pathology, 458 
prognosis, 459 
reflex, 459, 460 

treatment, 460 
secondary, 459, 460 
symptoms, 459 
treatment, 459 
Epiphora, 524 
Epistaxis, 24 
definition, 24 
etiology, 24, 25 
prognosis, 25 



Epistaxis, symptoms, 25 

treatment, 25 
EpitheHoma, contagious, 593 
EpitheHomata of eyelids, 509 
of mouth, 104 
of penis and prepuce, 269 
of pharynx, 129 
Epitheliosis infectiosa avium, 593 
diagnosis, 598 
etiology, 593 

natural infection, 594, 595 
pathogenesis, 593, 594 
pathology, 595, 593 
pre valency and distribution, 

593 
prevention, 599 
prognosis, 599 
symptoms, 593, 597, 598 
treatment, 599 
Esophagismus, 135 
definition, 135 
etiology, 135 
prognosis, 135 
symptoms, 135 
treatment, 135 
Esophagitis, 130 
course, 131 
definition, 130 
etiology, 130 
pathology, 130, 131 
prognosis, 131 ' 

symptoms, 131 
treatment, 131 
Esophagus, dilatations of, 133 
diseases of, 130 

examination, 130 
diverticula of, 136 
foreign bodies in, 131 
neoplasms of, 141 
obstruction in, 131 
stricture of, 135 
Eustrongylus gigas, 407 
Eversion of uterus, 300 
diagnosis, 301 
prognosis, 301 
symptoms, 301 
treatment, 301, 302 
Exanthematous conjunctivitis, 518 
Exophthahiiic goiter, 343 
Exophlhalmus, 550 
definition, 550 
etiology, 550 
l)rogn()sis, 550 



648 



INDEX 



Exophthalmus, symptoms, 550 

treatment, 550 
Eye, parasites of, 553 
Eyeball, luxation of, 550 
Eyelids, adhesions of, 504, 506 

diseases of, 497 
examination, 497 

inflammation of, 498 

malposition of, 499 

tumors of, 506 

wounds of, 497, 498 



Facetted keratitis, 529 
Facial nerve, paralysis of, 450 
Fatty liver, 241 
definition, 241 
etiology, 241, 242 
pathology, 242 
sjTnptoms, 242 
Favus, 484 
diagnosis, 485 
etiology, 484 
pathology, 484 
prognosis, 485 
S5rmptoms, 484, 485 
treatment, 485 
Feather eating in birds, 357 
etiology, 357 
symptoms, 357 
treatment, 357, 358 
pulhng in birds, 357 
Femoral hernia, 562 
Femur, fracture of, 374 
Fetid stomatitis, 96 
Fibromata of bladder, 423 
of mammary glands, 317, 318 
of mouth, 102 

of scrotum and testes, 272, 273 
of uterus, 303, 304 
of vulva and vagina, 313 
Fibrous goiter, 340 
Filaria immitis in blood, 330 
Filaridffi, 330 
Fistula, ear, 495 
salivary, 118 
definition, 118 
diagnosis, 119 
etiology, 118 
pathology, 118 
prognosis, 119 



Fistula, salivary, s>Tnptoms, 118, 
119 
treatment, 119 
Fleas, 472 

description, 472 
diagnosis, 473 
, occurrence, 472 

Ctenocephalus canis of dog, 
472 
fehs of cat, 472 
Pulex avium of bird, 472 

gonivcephalus of rab- 
bit, 472 
irritans of man, 472 
symptoms, 472, 473 
treatment; 473 
Follicular conjuncti\dtis, 517 
Foot-and-mouth disease, 600 
Foreign-body pneumonia, 58 
Foreign bodies and wounds of 
cornea, 535 
prognosis, 536 
symptoms, 535 
treatment, 536 
in conjunctiva, 519, 520 
in esophagus, 131 
diagnosis, 133 
etiology, 131, 132 
prognosis, 133 
symptoms, 132, 133 
treatment, 133, 134, 135 
in mouth, 106 
symptoms, 106 
treatment, 106 
in pharynx, 126 
diagnosis, 126 
prognosis, 126 
symptoms, 126 
treatment, 126, 127 
in stomach, 148 
diagnosis. 149, 150 
etiology, 148, 149 
prognosis, 150 
sjnnptoms, 149 
treatment, 150, 151, 152 
Fowl cholera; 584 
definition, 584 
diagnosis, 587, 588 
etiology, 584 
natural infection, 585 
occurrence, 584 
pathogenesis, 584, 585 
pathologA', 586 



INDEX 



649 



Fowl cholera, prevention, 589 
prognosis, 588 
symptoms, 587 
treatment, 588, 589 
pest, 589 

definition, 589 
diagnosis, 591 
' etiology, 590 
natural infection, 590 
occurrence, 589, 590 
pathogenicity, 590 
pathology, 590, 591 
prognosis, 592 
symptoms, 591 
treatment, 592 
plague^ 589 
typhoid, 584 
Fracture of bones, 368 
cranial, 368 
etiology, 368 
prognosis, 369 
symptoms, 368, 369 
treatment, 369 
femur, 374 
diagnosis, 375 
etiology, 374 
prognosis, 375 
symptoms, 375 
treatment, 375 
humerus, 372 
diagnosis, 372 
etiology, 372 
prognosis, 372 
symptoms, 372 
treatment, 372 
inferior maxilla, 369 
etiology, 370 
prognosis, 370 
symptoms, 370 
treatment, 370 
metacarpal and phalangeal, 
373 
diagnosis, 373 
treatment, 373 
patella, 375 
pelvis, 373, 374 
etiology, 374 
prognosis, 374 
symptoms, 374 
treatment, 374 
radius and ulna, 372, 373 
etiology, 373 
symptoms, 373 



Fracture of bones, radius and ulna, 

treatment, 373 
ribs, 371 

etiology, 371 

prognosis, 371 

symptoms, 371 

treatment, 371 
scapula, 371 

etiology, 372 

symptoms, 372 

treatment, 372 
tibia and fibula, 375 
vertebrae, 370 

etiology, 370 

prognosis, 371 

symptoms, 370, 371 

treatment, 371 
of orbit, 553 

treatment, 553 
of teeth, 108 
treatment, 108 



G 



Gall-stones, 245 
Gangrene of lungs, 58 
of tongue, 112 

definition, 112 

diagnosis, 113 

etiology, 113 

pathology, 113 

prognosis, 113 

symptoms, 113 

treatment, 113, 114 
Gangrenous glossitis, 112 

stomatitis, 97 
Gapes in chickens, 42 
Gastritis, 142 
acute, 142 

definition. 142 

diagnosis, 144 

etiology, 142, 143 

])athology; 143 

})rognosis, 144 

svmptoms, 143 

treatment, 144, 145, 14() 
chronic, 146 

definition, 14() 

diagnosivS, 147 

etiology, 14() 

patiiology, lit) 

prognosis, 1 17 



650 



IXDEX 



Gastritis, chronic, S}Tnptoms, 1-46 

treatment, 147, 148 
Gastro-enteritis, hemorrhagic, 579 

infectious, 600 
Gastrophilus intestinahs in stom- 
ach of dog. 163 
Glanders. 622 

Glands of MoU, enlargement of. 508 
submaxillary and sublingual, dis- 
eases of, 118 
s>TQptoms, 118 
treatment, 118 
Glaucoma, 549 
definition, 549 
prognosis. 549 
symptoms, 549 
treatment, 549 
Globe and orbit, diseases of, 548 
Glossitis, 111 
definition. 111 
etiolog^-, 111, 112 
gangrenous, 112 
pathology-, 112 
prognosis, 112 
sjinptoms, 112 
treatment, 112 
Goiter, 336 , 

cystic, 339 
definition, 339 
diagnosis, 339 
prognosis, 339 
s\Tnptoms, 339 
treatment, 339, 340 
definition, 336 
exophthalmic, 343 
definition, 343 
diagnosis, 345 
etiology-, 343 
pathogenesis, 343 
pathology', 343 
prognosis, 345 
sjTnptoms, 344 
treatment, 345 
fibrous, 340 
definition, 340 
diagnosis, 340 
prognosis, 340, 341 
sjinptoms, 340 
treatment, 341 
mahgnant, 342 
definition, 342 
diagnosis, 342, 343 
prognosis, 343 



Goiter, mahgnant, sjTnptoms, 342 

treatment, 343 
occurrence, 336 
parench^-matous, 336 

definition, 336 

diagnosis, 337, 338 

occurrence, 336 

prognosis, 338 

s>Tnptoms, 336, 337 

treatment, 338 
vascular, 341 

definition, 341 

diagnosis, 341. 342 

prognosis, 342 

s\Tnptoms, 341 

treatment, 342 
Gout, 354 
course, 356 
definition, 354 
diagnosis, 356 
etiolog\', 354, 355 
occurrence, 354 
pathogenesis, 355 
patholog}', 355 
s}Tnptoms, 355, 356 
treatment, 356, 357 
Granulomas of eyehds, 510 
Graves's disease, 343 



H-EMAPHYSALIS LeACHI, 633 

H8emostrong^'lus vasorum in blood, 

332 
Hard crop, 139 
Heart, diseases of, 78 

h^^-pertrophy and dilatation of, 89 

rupture of, 92 
Helminthiasis, 193 
Hematemesis, 160 

definition, 160 

diagnosis, 161, 162 

etiolog}', 160 

patholog}', 160, 161 

prognosis, 162 

SATuptoms, 161 

treatment, 162 
Hematoma, 489 

diagnosis, 490 

etiology-, 489 

prognosis, 490 

sjTnptoms, 489, 490 



INDEX 



651 



Hematoma, treatment, 490 
Hematozoon Lewisi in blood, 332 
Hemopericardium, 77 
definition, 77 
etiology, 77 
symptoms, 77 
treatment, 77 
Hemophilia, 328 
Hemorrhage, cerebral, 440 
intestinal, 175 

definition, 175, 176 
diagnosis, 177 
etiology, 176 
prognosis, 177 
symptoms, 176, 177 
treatment, 177 
Hemorrhagic gastro-enteritis, 579 
septicemia of cats, 600 
diagnosis, 602 
etiology, 600 
occurrence, 600 
pathogenesis, 601 
pathogenicity, 600 
pathology, 601 
prognosis, 602 
symptoms, 601 
treatment, 602 
Hemorrhoids, 216 
definition, 216 
diagnosis, 217 
etiology, 216 
pathology, 216 
prognosis, 217 
symptoms, 216 
treatment, 217 
Hemothorax, 67 
definition, 67 
diagnosis, 68 
etiology, 67 
pathology, 67 
prognosis, 68 
symptoms, 67 
treatment, 68 
Hepatitis, 235 

chronic interstitial, 243 
definition, 235 
diagnosis, 236 
etiology, 235 
pathology, 235 
prognosis, 236 
suppurative, 236 
definition, 23(), 237 
diagnosis, 239 



Hepatitis, suppurative, etiology, 
237 
pathology, 237, 238 
prognosis. 239 
symptoms, 238, 239 
treatment, 239, 240 
symptoms, 235, 236 
treatment, 236 
Hernia, 555 
definition, 555 
diaphragmatic, 563 
definition, 563 
etiology, 563 
symptoms, 563 
treatment, 563 
femoral, 562 
symptoms, 562 
treatment, 563 
general remarks, 555, 556, 557 
hernial contents, 556 
ring, 555, 556 
sac, 555 
irreducible hernias, 556, 557 
reducible hernias, 556 
inguinal, 560 
in female, 560 
etiology, 560 
symptoms, 560 
treatment, 561 
in male, 561 
etiology, 561 
symptoms, 561, 562 
treatment, 562 
occurrence, 555 
perineal, 563 
definition, 563 
etiology, 563 
symptoms, 563, 564 
treatment, 564 
scrotal, 561 

treatment, 562 
umbifical, 557 
etiology, 557 
symptoms, 557 
treatment, 557, 558 
ventral, 558 
definition, 558 
etiology, 558 
symptoms, 558 
treatment, 559, 560 
Herpes tonsurans, 482 
diagnosis, 483 
etiology, 482 



652 



INDEX 



Herpes tonsurans, pathology, 482 
prognosis, 483 
symptoms, 483 
treatment, 483, 484 
Heterakidse, 202 
Heterakis compressa, 203 

crassa, 203 

differens, 203 

dispar, 203 

inflexa, 203 

line at a, 203 

muculosa, 203 

papillosa, 202. 203 

perspicillum, 203 

vesicularis, 202, 203 
Hodgkin's disease, 327 
Honeycomb ringw^orm, 484 
Hookworm, 206 
Humero-radio-ulnar dislocation, 

379, 380 
Humerus, fracture of, 372 
Hydrometra of uterus, 304 
Hydronephrosis. 405 
Hydropericardium, 76 

definition. 76 

etiology, 76 

symptoms, 76 

treatment, 76 
Hydrophobia, 603 
Hydrophthalmus, 550 

definition, 550 

treatment, 550 
Hydrops abdominis, 257 

ascites, 257 

peritonei, 257 
Hydrothorax, 65 

definition, 65 

diagnosis, 66 

etiology, 65 

pathology, 65 

prognosis, 66 

symptoms, 66 

treatment, 66 
Hyperemia. 387 

acute, 387 
etiology, 387 
pathology, 387, 388 
prognosis, 388 
symptoms, 388 
treatment. 388 

of brain, 435 
definition, 435 
diagnosis, 436 



Hyperemia of brain, etiology, 435 
pathology, 435. 436 
prognosis, 436 
s^TQptoms, 436 
treatment, 436. 437 
of lungs, 49 
passive, 388 
etiology, 388 
patholog}', 388 
prognosis, 388 
s\TQptonis, 388 
treatment, 388 
Hypertrophy and dilatation of 
heart, 89 
definition, 89 
diagnosis, 91 
etiology, 89. 90 
necropsj', 90 
prognosis, 91 
s}TQptoms, 90, 91 
treatment, 91 
of prostate gland, 280 



Icterus, 225 
definition, 225 
diagnosis, 229 
etiolog>^, 225, 226 
pathology, 226, 227 
prognosis, 229 
symptoms, 227, 228, 229 
treatment, 229, 230 
Incontinence of urine in bladder, 
416 
definition, 416 
etiology, 416 
prognosis, 416 
sjTnptoms, 416 
treatment, 416 
Incrustations of tartar, 108 
Infectious asthenia of birds, 191 
bulbar parah'sis, 611 
diarrhea of chicks, 629 
gastro-enteritis, 600 
jaundice, 633 
leukemia of chickens, 325 
nasal catarrh of rabbits, 20 
Inferior maxilla, fracture of, 369 
Inflammation of eyehds, 498 
of kidnej^s, 388 
of membrana nictitans, 522 



INDEX 



653 



Inflammation of membrana nicti- 
tans, examination, 522 
prognosis, 523 
symptoms, 522, 523 
treatment, 523 
of orbit, 553 
of ovaries, 283 
definition, 283 
diagnosis, 284 
etiology, 284 
prognosis, 284 
symptoms, 284 
treatment, 284 
of renal pelvis, 398 
of synovial membrane and artic- 
ulations, 383 
definition, 383 
etiology, 383 
prognosis, 383 
symptoms, 383 
treatment, 383, 384 
of urethra, 429 
Inflammatory ectasia of cornea, 537 
forms, 537 

keratectasia, 537 
staphyloma, 537 
Influenza, rabbit, 20 
Infraorbital fossae of birds, empy- 
ema of, 20 
Inguinal hernia, 560 
in female, 560 
in male, 561 
Injuries of peripheral nerves, 450 

of spinal cord, 445 
Insufficiency, valvular, 78 
Interstitial hepatitis, 243 
chronic, 243 
pneumonia, 57 
chronic, 57 
Intestinal hemorrhage, 175 

obstruction, 182 
Intestines, diseases of, 167 
examination, 167 
parasites in, 193 
round worms in, 202 
of birds, 202, 203 
of cat, 202 
of dog, 202 
of rabbit, 202 
strongylida> in, 207- 
of cat, 207 
of dog, 207 
of rabbit, 207 



Intestines, taenia in, 195 
of birds, 198 
of cats, 197 
of dogs, 195, 196, 197 
of rabbits, 197, 198 
trichinelhdae in, 209, 210, 211 
of birds, 210, 211 
of dog, 210 
of rabbit, 210 
wounds of, 188 
Intussusception, 186 
definition, 186 
diagnosis, 187 
etiology, 186 
pathology, 186, 187 
prognosis, 187 
symptoms, 187 
treatment, 187, 188 
Inversion of uterus, 300 
Iridocyclitis, 540 
course, 541 
definition, 540 
etiology, 540 
prognosis, 541 
symptoms, 540, 541 
treatment, 541 
Iris and ciliary body, diseases of, 
539 
congenital defects of, 539 
cysts of, 541 
tumors of, 541 
Iritis, 540 
Itch, 475 

red, 482 
Ixodes ricinus, 633 



Jaundice, 225 
infectious, 633 
malignant, 633 



Keratectasia, 537 
Keratitis, 526 

definition, 526, 527 
non-suppurativo, 527 

keratitis pignuMitosa, 529 
definition, 529 
etiology, 529 



654 



INDEX 



Keratitis, non-suppurative, kera- 
titis pigmentosa, prog- 
nosis, 529 
symptoms, 529 
treatment, 529 
punctata profunda, 532 
definition, 532 
etiologj^, 532 
prognosis, 532 
symptoms, 532 
treatment, 532 
superficialis, 529 
course. 530 
definition, 529, 530 
etiolog>^, 530 
prognosis, 530 
sjTnptoms, 530 
treatment, 530 
parenchjTnatous, 530 
course, 531 
definition, 530 
etiology, 530, 531 
prognosis, 531 
sjTuptoms, 531 
treatment, 531, 532 
superficial, 527 
course, 527 
definition, 527 
etiologj^, 527 
prognosis, 527 
symptoms, 527 
treatment, 527, 528 
vascular, 528 
definition, 528 
etiology, 528 
prognosis, 528 
sjTiiptoms, 528 
treatment, 528 
suppurative, 527 

abscess of cornea, 534 
course, 535 
definition, 534 
etiology, 534 
prognosis, 535 
sjTuptoms, 534, 535 
treatment, 535 
keratitis from lagophthalmos, 
535 
definition, 535 
treatment, 535 
neuroparalytica, 535 
definition, 535 
ulceration of cornea, 532 



Keratitis, suppurative, ulceration 
of cornea, course, 533 
definition, 532 
etiology, 532, 533 
prognosis, 533 
sjTuptoms, 533 
treatment, 534 
Keratoconus, 538 
Keratoglobus, 538 
Kidney abscess, 396 
amyloid, 407 
animal parasites in, 407 
coccidia, 409 
Coccidium tenellum, 409 
Cysticercus cellulosse, 409 
DioctophjTne renale, 407 
Eimeria a\'ium, 409 
Eustrongylus gigas, 407 
calculi in, 402 
congestion of, 387 
cystic, 405 
diseases of, 385 

examination, 385, 386, 387 
dropsy of, 405 
inflammation of, 388 
tumors in, 407 



Lacrimal apparatus, diseases of, 
524 
examination, 524 
Lacrimation, 524 
definition, 524 
etiologj', 524 
prognosis, 525 
sjTtiptoms, 525 
treatment, 525 
Lagophthalmos, 506 
definition, 506 
treatment, 506 
Larjmgitis, 30 
acute, 30 

definition, 30 
diagnosis, 31 
etiologv, 30 
pathology, 30, 31 
prognosis, 31 
s}Tnptoms, 31 
treatment, 31 
chronic, 31 



INDEX 



655 



Laryngitis, chronic, definition, 31 
diagnosis, 32 
etiology, 31 
pathology, 32 
prognosis, 32 
symptoms, 32 
treatment, 32, 33 
Larynx, diseases of, 30 

examination, 30 
Lens, diseases of, 542 
examination, 542 
luxation of, 544 
Leukemia, 322 
course, 325 
definition, 322, 323 
diagnosis, 325 
etiology, 323 

infectious, of chickens, 325 
course, 326 
definition, 325 
diagnosis, 326, 327 
etiology, 325, 326 
occurrence, 325 
pathogenesis, 326 
pathology, 326 
prognosis, 327 
symptoms, 326 
treatment, 327 
lymphatic, 322 
myelogenous, 322 
occurrence, 323 
pathology, 323 
prognosis, 325 
symptoms, 323, 324, 325 
treatment, 325 
Lice, 473 

description, 473, 474 
diagnosis, 475 
kinds, 474 

Linognathus piliferus, 474 
Menopum biseriatum, 474 

trigonocephalum, 474 
Trichodectes latus, 474 
subrostratus, 474 
prognosis, 475 
symptoms, 474, 475 
treatment, 475 
Linognathus piliferus, 474 
Lipoma of eyelids, in birds, 508 

of mammary glands, 318 
Liver, abscess of, 236 
amyloid, 242 
atrophy of, 240 



Liver, cirrhosis of, 243 
congestion of, 231 
diseases -of, 225 

examination, 225 
fatty, 241 
neoplasms of, 244 
rupture of, 246 
Lockjaw, 613 
Lungs, cirrhosis of, 57 
congestion of, 49 
active, 49 
passive, 50 
diseases of, 47 

examination, 47, 48, 49 
auscultation, 47, 48 
percussion, 49 
respiration, 47 
thorax, 47 
edema of, 52 
gangrene of, 58 
hyperemia of, 49 
Luxation, 378 
of eyeball, 550 
prognosis, 550 
treatment, 550, 551 
of lens, 544 
treatment, 544 
Lymphadenitis, 120 
Lyssa, 603 



M 



Malformations, congenital, of 
penis and prepuce, 265 
of urethra, 425 
sjrmptoms, 426 
treatment, 426 
of vagina and vulva, 309 
of teeth, 107 
treatment, 107 
Malignant goiter, 342 
jaundice, 633 
neoplasms of eyehds, 508, 509 

of mouth, 104 
tumors of mammary glands, 318 
carcinomata, 318 
sarcomata, 318 
in nasal passages, 29 
Malposition of eyelids, 499 
blepharoptosis, 501 
blepharospasm, 503 
ectropion, 500 



656 



INDEX 



Malposition of eyelids, ectropion, 
definition, 500 
etiology, 500 
prognosis, 500 
symptoms, 500 
treatment, 500, 501 
entropion, 499 
definition, 499 
etiology, 499 
prognosis, 499 
symptoms, 499 • 
treatment, 499, 500 
paralysis of orbicularis nerve, 
502 
definition, 502 
etiology, 502 
prognosis, 502, 503 
symptoms, 502 
treatment, 503 
ptosis, 501 
definition, 501 
etiology, 501 
symptoms, 502 
treatment, 502 
spasm of orbicularis nerve, 503 
definition, 503 
treatment, 503 
Mammary glands, congestion of, 
316 
diseases of, 315 

examination, 315 
tumors of, 317 
wounds and injuries of, 315 
Mammitis, 316 
definition, 316 
etiology, 316 
prognosis, 317 
symptoms, 316, 317 
treatment, 317 
Mange, 475 
definition, 475 
demodectic, 480 
diagnosis, 481 
etiology, 480 
pathology, 480 
prognosis, 481 
symptoms, 480, 481 
treatment, 481, 482 
etiology, 475, 476 
mites, 476 
demodex, 480 

foUiculorum, 480 
sarcoptes, 476 



Mange, mites, sarcoptes of cat, 
477 
Sarcoptes minor, var. cati, 

477 
Notoedres cati, var. cat, 
477 
of dog, 476, 477- 

Sarcoptes scabiei, var. 
canis, 476, 477 
of ferret, 477, 478 

Sarcoptes scabiei, var, 
hydrochseri, 477, 478 
of fowl, 478 

Cnemidocoptes mutans, 

var. gallinae, 478 
Sarcoptes mutans, 478 
of rabbit, 477 

Notoedres cati, var. cuni- 

culi, 477 
Sarcoptes minor, var. 
cuniculi, 477 
red, 475 
sarcoptic, 475 
diagnosis, 478 
pathology, 476 
prognosis, 478 
treatment, 478, 479, 480 
Mastitis, 316 
Megrim, 457 

Meibomian cyst of eyelids, 507 
Membrana nictitans, inflammation 
of, 522 
tumors on, 523 
wounds of, 523 
Membranous enteritis, 190 
Meningo-encephahtis, 438 
definition, 438, 439 
diagnosis, 440 
etiology, 439 
pathology, 439 
prognosis, 440 
symptoms, 439, 440 
treatment, 440 
MeningomyeHtis, 443 
definition, 443 
diagnosis, 445 
etiology, 444 
pathology, 444 
prognosis, 445 
symptoms, 444, 445 
treatment, 445 
Menopum biseriatum, 476 
trigonocephalum, 476 



INDEX 



657 



Metacarpal and phalangeal bones, 

fracture of, 373 
Metastrongulinse, 330 
Metritis, 293 
acute, 293 
definition, 293 
diagnosis, 295 
etiology, 293, 294 
pathology, 294, 295 
prognosis, 295 
symptoms, 295 
treatment, 295, 296 
chronic, 296 
definition, 296 
diagnosis, 298 
etiology, 296, 297 
pathology, 297 
prognosis, 298 
symptoms, 297, 298 
treatment, 298 
definition, 293 
Moniezia denticulata, 197 . 
Mouth, benign neoplasms of, 102 
canker of, 97 
diseases of, 93 

examination, 93, 94 

abnormal conditions noted, 
93, 94 
foreign bodies, 94 
mucous membranes, 94 
neoplasms, 94 
odor, 93 

secretions, 93, 94 
foreign bodies in, 106 
mahgnant neoplasms of, 104 
sore, 96 
Multiceps multiceps, 196 

seriahs, 196, 197 
Mumps, 115 

Muscular rheumatism, 365 
Mycotic pneumonia, 40 
Mydriasis, 539, 540 

definition, 539 
Myocarditis, 82 
acute, 82 
definition, 82 
diagnosis, 84 
etiology, 82, 83 
necropsy, 83 
prognosis, 84 
symptoms, 83, 84 
treatment, 84 
chronic, 84 
42 



Myocarditis, chronic, definition, 84 

etiology, 85 

necropsy, 85 
Myomata of uterus, 304 
Myosis, 540 
definition, 540 



N 



Nasal catarrh, acute, 19 
chronic, 23 
of rabbits, 20, 21 
infectious, 20, 21 
parasitic, 22 
passages, diseases of, 17 
examination, 17, 18 

abnormal conditions noted, 
18, 19 
discharge, 19 
foreign bodies, 18 
hemorrhage, 18 
infectious, 18 
malformations, 18, 19 
parasites, 18 
tumors, 18 
neoplasms of, 28 
benign tumors, 28 
papillomata, 28 
treatment, 28 
polypoid fibromata, 28 
treatment, 28, 29 
malignant tumors, 29 
diagnosis, 29 
prognosis, 29 
symptoms, 29 
treatment, 29 
parasites of, 25 
definition, 25 
diagnosis, 27 
etiology, 25 
life cycle, 26 
necropsy, 27 
prognosis, 27 
symptoms, 27 
treatment, 27 
Nematoda, 201 
species, 201 
ascaridic, 201 
hookworm, 2()() 
round worms, 201 

in intestine of birds, 202, 
?03 



658 



INDEX 



Nematoda, species, round worms, 
in intestine of cat, 
202 
of dog, 202 
of rabbit, 202 
strongylidse, 206 

in intestine of cat, 207 
of dog, 207 
of rabbit, 207 
trichinellidae, 209, 210 
in intestine of birds, 210 
of dog, 210 
of rabbit, 210 
whipworm, 209, 210 
Neoplasms of ear, 493 
cysts, 494 
papillomata, 493 
prognosis, 493 
sjnuptoms, 493 
treatment, 493 
sebaceous tumors, 494 
treatment, 494 
of esophagus, 141 
diagnosis, 141 
prognosis, 141 
sjrmptoms, 141 
treatment, 141 
of eyehds, 508, 509 
of hver, 244 
symptoms, 244 
treatment, 244 
of mouth, 102 
benign, 102 
fibromata, 102 
symptoms, 103 
treatment, 103 
osteoma, 103 
symptoms, 103 
treatment, 103 
papillomata, 102 
symptoms, 102 
treatment, 102 
retention cysts, 103 
treatment, 104 
malignant, 104 
epitheUomata, 104 
symptoms, 104, 105 
treatment, 105 
sarcomata, 105 
symptoms, 105 
treatment, 105 
of nasal passages, 28 
of pharynx, 128 



Neoplasms of pharynx, epitheho- 
mata, 129 
symptoms, 129 
treatment, 129 
polypoid growths, 128 
symptoms, 128 
treatment, 128 
in rectum, 222 
diagnosis, 223 
prognosis, 223 
symptoms, 222, 223 
treatment, 223 
in stomach, 165 
prognosis, 165 
symptoms, 165 
treatment, 165, 166 
Nephritis, 388 
acute, 388 
course, 392 
definition, 388, 389 
diagnosis, 391, 392 
etiology, 389, 390 
pathology, 390 
prognosis, 392 
symptoms, 391 
treatment, 392 
chronic, 392 

definition, 392, 393 
diagnosis, 395 
etiology, 393 
pathology, 393, 394 
prognosis, 395 
symptoms, 394, 395 
treatment, 396 
purulent, 396 
definition, 396 
diagnosis, 398 
etiology, 396, 397 
pathology, 397 
prognosis, 398 
symptoms, 397, 398 
treatment, 398 
Nephrohthiasis, 402 
Neuritis, retrobulbar, 546, 547 
Non-inflammatory ectasia of cor- 
nea, 538 
forms, 538 

keratoconus, 538 
keratoglobus, 538 
Non-suppurative keratitis, 527 
forms, 526, 527 

keratitis pigmentosa, 529 
punctata profunda, 532 



INDEX 



659 



Non-suppurative keratitis, forms, 
keratitis pigmentosa, 
punctata superficialis, 529 
parenchymatous, 530 
superficial, 527 
vascular, 528 
Nystagpaus, 552 
definition, 552 
treatment, 553 



Obesity, 352 
course, 353 
definition, 352 
etiology, 352, 353 
pathology, 353 
prognosis, 353 
symptoms, 353 
treatment, 353, 354 
Obstipation, 182 
Obstruction of crop in birds, 139 
definition, 139 
etiology, 139 
prognosis, 140 
symptoms, 139, 140 
treatment, 140, 141 
in esophagus, 131 
intestinal, 182 
Occlusion of rectum and anus, 212, 
213 
artificial, 213 
congenital, 212, 213 
diagnosis, 213 
prognosis, 213 
symptoms, 213 
treatment, 213^ 214 
of urethra, 425 
Ollulanus tricuspis in stomach of 

cat, 163 
Oophorectomy, 285, 286 
in cat, 289 

in dog, 286, 287, 288, 289 
Oophoritis, 283 
Opacities of cornea, 536 
prognosis, 536 
treatment, 536, 537 
Optic nerve, atrophy of, 547 
diseases of, 546 
hemorrhages of, 546 
inflammation of, 546 
tumors of, 546 



Optic nerve, wounds of, 546 
Orbicularis nerve, paralysis of, 502 

spasm of, 503 
Orbit, fracture of, 553 

inflammation of, 553 

tumors of, 553 
Orchectomy, 273 
Orchitis, 271 

definition, 271 

etiology, 271, 272 

prognosis, 272 

symptoms, 272 

treatment, 272 
Osteoma of mouth, 103 
Osteomalacia, 362 
Otitis externa, 490, 491 
diagnosis, 492 
etiology, 491 
prognosis, 492 
symptoms, 491, 492 
treatment, 492 

interna, 493 

media, 493 
Otorrhea, 490, 491 
Ovariectomy, 285, 286 
Ovaries, diseases of, 283 
examination, 283 

inflammation of, 283 

tumors of, 284 
Oxyuridse, 221 
Oxyuris ambigua, 202, 222 

compar, 221 

vermicularis, 221 



Pannus, 528 

Panophthalmitis, 548 
definition, 548 
diagnosis, 548, 549 
prognosis, 549 
symptoms, 548 
treatment, 549 

Papillitis, 546 
definition, 546 
prognosis, 546 

Papillomata of ear, 493 
of eyelids, 506 
of mouth, 102 
of nasal passages, 28 
of penis and prepuce, 269 
of vulva and vagina, 314 



660 



INDEX 



Paralysis, infectious bulbar, 611 
definition, 611 
diagnosis, 612 
etiology, 612 
natural infection, 612 
pathogenicity, 612 
pathology, 612 
prognosis, 613 
symptoms, 612, 613 
treatment, 613 
of orbicularis nerve, 502 
of peripheral nerves, 450 
auditory, 453 
diagnosis, 454 
etiology, 453, 454 
prognosis, 454 
symptoms, 454 
treatment, 454 
brachial plexus, 455 
etiology, 455 
prognosis, 456 
symptoms, 456 
treatment, 456 
facial, 450 
diagnosis, 451 
etiology, 450, 451 
prognosis, 451 
symptoms, 451 
treatment, 451, 452 
radial, 454 
diagnosis, 455 
etiology, 454, 455 
prognosis, 455 
symptoms, 455 
treatment, 455 
sciatic, 456 
etiology, 456 
prognosis, 456 
symptoms, 456 
treatment, 456 
trigeminal, 452 
diagnosis, 453 
etiology, 452 
prognosis, 453 
symptoms, 452, 453 
treatment, 453 
of pharynx, 127 
Paraphimosis, 267 
definition, 267 
etiology, 267 
prognosis, 268 
symptoms, 268 
treatment, 268 



Parasites, animal, in blood, 330 
Dirofilaria immitis, 330 
diagnosis, 332 
etiology, 330, 331 
occurrence, 330 
pathogenesis, 331 
pathology, 331 
symptoms, 331, 332 
treatment, 332 
Filaria immitis, 330 
Haemostrongylus vasorum, 
332 
diagnosis, 333 
symptoms, 332 
treatment, 333 
Hematozoon Lewisi, 332 
Spiroptera sanguinolenta, 
333 
in kidney, 407 
coccidla, 409 
Coccidium tenellum, 409 
Cysticercus cellulosae, 409 
Dioctophyme renale, 407 
diagnosis, 409 
life cycle, 408 
prognosis, 409 
symptoms, 408, 409 
treatment, 409 
Eimeria avium, 409 
Eustrongylus gigas, 407 
in bladder, 423, 424 

Dioctophyme renale, 423 
treatment, 424 
in ear, 494 
diagnosis, 494 
prognosis, 494 
symptoms, 494 
treatment, 494 
of eye, 553 
in intestines, 193 
of nasal passages, 25 
in rectum, 221 
Oxyuridse, 221 
Oxyuris ambigua, 222 
compar, 221 
vermicularis, 221 
symptoms, 222 
treatment, 222 
in scrotum and testes, 273 
in stomach, 163 
of birds, 163 

Dispharagus n a s u t u s, 
163 



INDEX 



661 



Parasites in stomach of birds, Dis- ! 
pharagus spiralis, 163 
Trichosomum contortum, 163 
of cat, 163 

Ollulanus tricuspis, 163 
Tsenia tseniseformis, 163 
diagnosis, 164 
of dog, 163 

Gastrophilus intestinalis, 163 
Spiroptera sanguinolenta, 
163 
prognosis, 164 
of rabbits, 163 

Strongylus strigosus, 163 
symptoms, 164 
treatment, 165 
in trachea and bronchial tubes, 
42 
Parasitic nasal catarrh of birds, 22 
of rabbits, 22 
stomatitis, 100 
Parenchymatous conjunctivitis,514 
goiter, 336 
keratitis, 530 
Parotitis, 115 
definition, 115 
diagnosis, 117 
etiology, 115, 116 
pathology, 116 
prognosis, 117 
symptoms, 116, 117 
treatment, 117 
Passolurus ambigus, 202 
Pasteurellosis avium, 584 
Patella, fracture of, 375 
Patellar dislocation, 382 
Pelvis, fracture of, 373, 374 
Penis and prepuce, congenital mal- 
formations of, 265 
diseases of, 263 

examination, 263 
tumors of, 268 
wounds of, 263, 264 
Pericarditis, 73 
definition, 73 
diagnosis, 75 
etiology, 73, 74 
necropsy, 74 
prognosis, 75 
symptoms, 75 
treatment, 75, 76 
Pericardium, diseases of, 69 

examination, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73 



Pericardium, diseases of, exami- 
nation, heart, 71 
auscultation, 71, 72, 73 
endocardial bruits, 72, 

73 
pericardial bruits, 73 
palpation, 71 
percussion, 71 
pulse, 69, 70 

frequency, 69, 70 
quahty, 70 
rhythm, 70 
dropsy of, 76 
Pericementitis, 108 
Perineal hernia, 563 
Periodontitis, 108 
Periostitis, alveolar, 108 
definition, 108 
etiology, 108, 109 
pathology, 109 
symptoms, 109 
treatment, 109 
Peripheral nerves, compression of, 
450 
injuries of, 450 
paralysis of, 450 
pressure on, 450 
Peritoneum, diseases of, 248 

general remarks, 248, 249 
Peritonitis, 250 
acute, 250 

course, 253, 254 
definition, 250 
diagnosis, 254 
etiology, 250, 251 
pathogenesis, 251 
pathology, 251, 252 
prognosis, 254 
symptoms, 252, 253 
treatment, 254, 255 
chronic, 255 
definition, 255 
diagnosis, 257 
etiology, 255, 256 
pathology, 256 
l)rognosis, 257 
symptoms, 256 
treatment, 257 
Pestus avium, 489 
Phalangeal dislocation, 381 
Pharyngitis, 123 
acute, 123 

definition, 123 



662 



INDEX 



Pharyngitis, acute, diagnosis, 124 
etiology, 123 
pathology, 124 
prognosis, 124 
symptoms, 124 
treatment, 125 
chronic, 125 
definition, 125 
etiology, 125 
pathology, 125 
prognosis, 125 
symptoms, 125 
treatment, 125, 126 
croupous, of birds, 127 
definition, 127 
etiology, 127 
pathology, 127 
prognosis, 128 
symptoms, 128 
treatment, 128 
Pharynx, diseases of, 123 
examination, 123 
foreign bodies in, 126 
neoplasms of, 128 
paralysis of, 127 
Phimosis, 266 
definition, 266 
etiology, 266 
symptoms, 266, 267 
treatment, 267 
Phlegmonous stomatitis, 99 
Phthiriasis, 474 
Pigmentary keratitis, 529 
Piles, 216 

Pilosebaceous cysts, 507 
Piroplasma bigeminum, 633 
cards, 633 
commune, 633 
Piroplasmosis of dog, 633 
definition, 633 
diagnosis, 635, 636 
etiology, 633, 634 
pathology, 634 
prognosis, 636 
symptoms, 634, 635 
treatment, 636 
Plague, dog, 579 
fowl, 589 
rabbit, 20 
Pleura, diseases of, 60 
Pleurisy, 60 
Pleuritis, 60 
definition, 60 



Pleuritis, diagnosis, 64 
etiology, 60, 61 
pathology, 61, 62 
prognosis, 64 
symptoms, 62, 63 
treatment, 64, 65 
Pneumonia, catarrhal, 53 
chronic interstitial, 57 
foreign body, 58 
definition, 58 
diagnosis, 59 
etiology, 58, 59 
pathology, 59 
prognosis, 59 
symptoms, 59 
treatment, 59 
mycotic, 40 
definition, 40 
diagnosis, 41 
etiology, 40 
pathology, 40, 41 
prevention, 41 
prognosis, 41 
symptoms, 41 
treatment, 41 
Pneumothorax, 66 
definition, 66 
diagnosis, 67 
etiology, 66 
pathology, 66 
prognosis, 67 
symptoms, 67 
treatment, 67 
Podagra, 354 

Polyarthritis rheumatica, 363 
Polypoid fibromata of nasal pas- 
sages, 28 
growths of pharynx, 128 
Poulardizing the female chicken, 

289, 290 
Preputial catarrh, 265 
Pressure on peripheral nerves, 450 
Proctitis, 214 
definition, 214 
diagnosis, 215 
etiology, 214 
pathology, 214, 215 
prognosis, 215 
symptoms, 215 
treatment, 215 
Prolapse of rectum, 217 
definition, 217 
diagnosis, 218 



INDEX 



663 



Prolapse of rectum, etiology, 217, 
218 
prognosis, 218, 219 
symptoms, 218 
treatment, 219, 220, 221 
of uterus, 300 
of vagina, 311 
diagnosis, 312 
etiology, 311 
prognosis, 312 
symptoms, 312 
treatment, 312, 313 
Prostate gland, diseases of, 279 
examination, 279 
hypertrophy of, 280 
tumors of, 280 
Prostatitis, 279 
definition, 279 
etiology, 279 
prognosis, 280 
symptoms, 279, 280 
treatment, 280 
Pseudo-actinomycosis of dogs, 623 
definition, 623 
diagnosis, 624 
etiology, 623 
occurrence, 623 
pathogenicity, 623 
pathology, 623 
prognosis, 624 
symptoms, 623, 624 
treatment, 624 
Pseudoleukemia, 327 
definition, 327 
diagnosis, 327 
etiology, 327 
occurrence, 327 
pathology, 327 
prognosis, 327 
symptoms, 327 
treatment, 327 
Pseudorabies, 611 
Pterygium, 519 
defijiition, 519 
diagnosis, 519 
prognosis, 519 
sjnnptoms, 519 
treatment, 519 
Ptosis, 501 

Puerperal septicemia, 298 
definition, 298, 299 
diagnosis, 299, 300 , 
etiology, 299 



Puerperal septicemia, pathology, 
299 
prognosis, 300 
symptoms, 299 
treatment, 300 
Pulex avium of birds, 472 
gonivcephalus of rabbits, 472 
irritans of man, 472 
Pulmonary edema, 52 
definition, 52 
diagnosis, 53 
etiology, 52 
pathology, 52 
prognosis, 53 
symptoms, 52 
treatment, 53 
Purpura hemorrhagica of dogs, 583 
Purulent conjunctivitis, 512 
PyeHtis, 398 
definition, 398 
diagnosis. 399 
etiology, 398, 399 
pathology, 399 
prognosis, 399 
s3rmptonis, 399 
treatment, 400 
Pyometra, 296 
Pyosalpinx, 291 



R 



Rabbit distemper, 20 
influenza, 20 
plague, 20 
Rabies, 603 

course, 609, 610 
definition, 603 
diagnosis, 608 

differential, 610, 611 

confused with canine dis- 
temper (nervous form), 
610 
diseases of brain, 610 
eclampsia, 611 
epilepsy, 611 
foreign bodies, 610 
infectiousbulbar paralysis, 

611 
parasites in intestinal 

tract, 610 
trigeminal or facial par- 
alysis, 610, 611 



664 



INDEX 



Rabies, etiologj^, 603 
natural infection, 604 
occurrence, 603 
pathogenesis, 604, 605 
pathogenicity, 603, 604 
pathology, 605 
preventive inoculation, 611 
prognosis, 609, 610 
sjTiiptoms, 605, 606, 607 
treatment, 611 
Rachitis, 359 

course, 361 " ' 

definition, 359 
etiology, 359, 360 
occurrence, 359 
pathology, 360 
prognosis, 361 
sjTQptoms, 360, 361 
treatment, 361, 362 
Radial nerve, paralysis of, 454 
Radio-ulnar-carpal dislocation, 380 
Radius and ulna, fracture of, 372, 

373 
Ranula, 103 

Rectum and anus, diseases of, 212 
examination, 212 
neoplasms in, 222 
occlusion of, 212, 213 
parasites in, 221 
prolapse of, 217 
Red itch, 482 
mange, 475 
Reflex epilepsy, 459 
Renal abscess, 397 

pehds, inflammation of, 398 
Reproductive organs, diseases of, 

263 
Retentio urinse vesicahs, 414 
Retention cysts in mouth, 103 
of scrotum and testes, 273 
of urine in bladder, 414 
definition, 414 
diagnosis, 415 
etiology, 414 
prognosis, 415 
sjTnptoms, 414, 415 
treatment. 415 
Retina and choroid, diseases of, 545 
pathological changes, 545 
anemia, 545 
atrophy, 545 
^ detachment of retina, 545 
edema, 545 



Retina and choroid, pathological 
changes, hyperemia, 545 
inflammation (retinitis), 
545 
Retrobulbar neuritis, 546, 547 
Rheumatism, 363 
articular, 363 
course, 364 
definition, 363 
diagnosis, 364 
etiology, 363 
pathology, 363 
prognosis, 364, 365 
symptoms, 364 
treatment, 365 
muscular, 365 
course, 367 
definition, 365 
etiology, 365, 366 
patholog3^, 366 
prognosis, 367 
symptoms, 366, 367 
treatment, 367 
Rhinitis, 19 
chronic, 23 
coccidiosa, 22 
Rhipicephalus sanguineus, 633 
Ribs, fracture of, 371 
Rickets, 359 
Ringworm, 482 

honeycomb, 484 
Roundworms, 201 
diagnosis, 204 

in intestine of birds, 202, 203 
Heterakis compressa, 203 
crassa, 203 
differens, 203 
dispar, 203 
inflexa, 203 
Hneata, 203 
muculosa, 203 
papillosa, 202, 203 
perspicillum, 203 
vesicularis, 202, 203 
of cat, 202 

Belascaris mystax, 202 
of dog, 202 

Belascaris marginata, 202 
Echinorhynchus cards, 

202 
Toxascaris limbata, 202 
marginata, 202 
of rabbit, 202 



INDEX 



665 



Roundworms in intestine of rabbit, 
Oxyuris anibigua, 202 
Passolurus ambigus, 202 
pathology, 293, 204 
prevention, 205, 206 
prognosis, 205 
S5rLnptoms, 204 
treatment, 205 
Roup, 593 

Ruptura hepatis, 246 
Rupture of bladder, 412 

prognosis, 413 

symptoms, 412, 413 

treatment, 413 
of heart, 92 

etiology, 92 

symptoms, 92 

treatment, 92 
of hver, 246 

diagnosis, 246 

etiology, 246 

pathology, 246 

prognosis, 246, 247 

symptoms, 246 

treatment, 247 
of uterus, 303 

prognosis, 303 

sjonptoms, 303 

treatment, 303 
of vagina, 313 



Salivary fistula, 118 
glands, diseases of, 115 
examination, 115 
Salpingitis, 291 
definition, 291 
etiology, 291 
symptoms, 291 
treatment, 291 
Sarcomata of bladder, 423 
of eyeHds, 509 
of mammary glands, 318 
of mouth, 105 
of penis and prepuce, 269 
of scrotum and testes, 273 
of vulva and vagina, 314 
Sarcoptes mite, 476 
of cat, 477 

Notoedres cati, var. cati, 477 
Sarcoptes minor, var. cati, 
477 



Sarcoptes mite of dog, 476, 477 

Sarcoptes scabiei, var. canis, 
478, 479 
of ferret, 479, 480 

Sarcoptes scabiei, var. hy- 
drochaeri, 477, 478 
of fowl, 478 

Cnemidocoptes mutans, var. 

galhnse, 478 
Sarcoptes mutans, 478 
of rabbit, 477 

Notoedres cati, var. cuniculi, 

477 
Sarcoptes minor, var. cuni- 
culi, 477 
Scabies, 475 

Scapula, fracture of, 371 
Scapulohumeral dislocation, 379 
Sciatic nerve, paralysis of, 456 
Scorbutus, 328 
Scrotal hernia, 561 
Scrotum, diseases of, 271 
parasites in, 273 
tumors of, 272 
wounds and injuries of, 271 
Scurv}', 328 
definition, 328 
diagnosis, 329 
etiology, 328 
occurrence, 328 
pathology, 328, 329 
prognosis, 329, 330 
symptoms, 329 
treatment, 330 
Sebaceous tumors in birds, 508 

of ear, 494 
Secondary epilepsy, 457 
Septiceinia, hemorrhagic, of cats, 
600 
puerperal, 298 
Simple catarrh of stomach, 142 
Skin diseases, non-parasitic, 463 
examination, 463, 464 
microscopic, 463, 464 
parasitic, 472 
vegetable 482 
Soft crop, 137 
Soor, 100 
Sore mouth, 96 

Spasm of orbicularis nerve, 503 
Spinal cord, compression of, 448 
concussion of, 445 
diseases of, 443 



666 



INDEX 



Spinal cord, diseases of, examina- 
tion, 443 ^ 
general considerations, 443 
functions of cord, 443 
injuries of, 445 
Spirillosis of chickens, 625 
Spirochaetosis avium, 625 
of fowls, 625 
definition, 625 
diagnosis, 626 
etiology, 625 

natural infection, 625, 626 
occurrence, 625 
pathogenesis, 625 
pathology, 626 
prognosis, 626 
symptoms, 626 
treatment, 626, 627 
Spiroptera sanguinolenta, 333 

in stomach of dog, 163 
Sprains and injuries to articula- 
tions, 377 
Staphyloma, 537 
Stenosis, 78 
Stomacace, 96 

Stomach, Chronic catarrh of, 146 
dilatation of, 152 
acute, 152 
chronic, 154 
diseases of, 142 

examination, 142 
foreign bodies in, 148 
neoplasms in, 165 
parasites in, 163 
simple catarrh of, 142 
ulceration of, 157 
Stomatitis, 94 
catarrhal, 94 
definition, 94 
diagnosis, 95 
etiology, 94, 95 
pathology, 95 
prognosis, 96 
symptoms, 95 
treatment, 96 
fetid, 96 
gangrenous, 97 
definition, 97 
diagnosis, 98 
etiology, 97, 98 
pathology, 98 
prevention, 99 
prognosis, 98, 99 



Stomatitis, gangrenous, symptoms, 
98 

treatment, 99 
parasitic, 100 

definition, 100 

diagnosis, 101 

etiology, 100, 101 

pathology, 101 

prognosis, 101 

symptoms, 101 

treatment, 102 
phlegmonous, 99 

definition, 99 

diagnosis, 100 

etiology, 99 

pathology, 99 

prognosis, 100 

symptoms, 100 

treatment, 100 
ulcerative, 96 

definition, 96 

diagnosis, 97 

etiology, 96 

pathology, 96 

prognosis, 97 

symptoms, 96, 97 

treatment, 97 
Strabismus, 552 
definition, 552 
diagnosis, 552 
etiology, 552 
treatment, 552 
Streptotrichosis canum, 623 
Stricture of esophagus, 135 

definition, 135 

etiology, 136 

prognosis, 136 

symptoms, 136 

treatment, 136 
of urethra, 426 

definition, 426 

diagnosis, 427 

etiology, 427 

prognosis, 427 

symptoms, 427 

treatment, 427 
StrongyHdse, 206 
diagnosis, 208 
in intestine of cat, 207 

Ankylostomum trigono- 
cephalum, 207 

of dog, 207 
Ankylostomum canina, 207 



INDEX 



667 



Strongylidse in intestine of dog, 
Ankylostomum stenoce- 
phaliun, 207 
Dochmius trigonocephalus, 

207 
Uncinaria stenocephala, 207 
trigonocephala, 207 
of rabbit, 207 

Strongyloides longus, 207 
Strongylus strigosus, 207 
pathology, 208 
prognosis, 209 
symptoms, 208 
treatment, 209 
Strongyloides longus, 207 
Strongylus strigosus, 207 

in stomach of rabbits, 163 
Struma, 336 
Submaxillary and sublingual glands, 

118 
Superficial keratitis, 529 
Suppuration of analglands,223, 224 
diagnosis, 224 
treatment, 224 
Suppurative hepatitis, 236 
keratitis, 532 
forms, 532 

abscess of cornea, 534 
keratitis from lagophthal- 
mos, 535 
neuroparalytica, 535 
ulceration of cornea, 532 
Symblepharon, 505 
Syngamosis, 42 
Synovial membrane, inflammation 

of, 383 
Synovitis, 383 



Table of equivalents in weights 

and measures, 637 
Taenia, coenurus, 196 

crassicolHs, 197 

cucumerina, 195 

echinococcus, 197 

elliptica, 197 

hydatigena, 196 

marginata, 196 

pisiformis, 195 

pseudo-elliptica, 197 

serialis, 196 



Taenia serrata, 195, 196 

taeniaeformis in stomach of cat, 
193 
Taeniae, 193 

in intestine of birds, 198 

Choanotaenia infundibulifor- 

mis, 198 
Davainea cesticillus, 198 
crassula, 198 
echinobothrida, 198 
proglottina, 198 
tetragona, 198 
Dicranotaenia sphenoides, 

198 
Taenia cantaniani, 198 
of cats, 197 

Bothriocephalus fells, 197 
Taenia crassicoUis, 197 
elliptica, 197 
pseudo-elliptica, 197 
taeniaeformis, 197 
of dogs, 195 

Dipyhdium caninum, 195 
Echinococcus granulosus, 

197 
Multiceps multiceps, 196 

seriahs, 196, 197 
Taenia coenurus, 196 
cucumerina, 195 
echinococcus, 197 
hydatigena, 196 
marginata, 196 
pisiformis, 195, 196 
seriaHs, 196, 197 
serrata, 195, 196 - 
of rabbits, 197, 198 

Citto taenia denticulata, 197 
Moniezia denticulata, 197 
hfe history, 194, 195 
Taeniasis, 193, 194, 195 
in birds, 198 
in cats, 197 
diagnosis, 200 
in dogs, 195 
pathology, 198, 199 
prognosis, 200 
in rabbits, 197, 198 
symptoms, 199, 200 
treatment, 200, 201 
Tartar, incrustations of, 108 
Teeth, caries of, 109 
diseases of, 107 
examination, 107 



668 



INDEX 



Teeth, fractures of, 108 
malformations of, 107 
Temporomaxillary dislocation, 378 
Testes, diseases of, 271 
parasites in, 273 
tumors of, 272 
wounds and injuries of, 271 
Tetanus, 613 

definition, 613, 614 
diagnosis, 614 
etiology, 614 
natural infection, 614 
occurrence, 614 
pathology, 614 
prognosis, 615 
symptoms, 614, 615 
treatment, 615, 
Thrush, 100 

Thyroid glands, congestion of> 334, 
335 
diseases of, 334 
examination, 334 
general considerations, 334 
Thyroiditis, acute, 335 
definition, 335 
etiology, 335 
prognosis, 335 
symptoms, 335 
treatment, 335, 336 
Tibia and fibula, fracture of, 375 
Tibiotarsal dislocation, 383 
Tongue, diseases of. 111 
examination. 111 
gangrene of, 112 
Tonsillitis and lymphadenitis, 120 
definition, 120 
etiology, 120, 121 
pathology, 121 
prognosis, 121 
symptoms, 121 
treatment, 121, 122 
Tonsils, diseases of, 120 

examination, 120 

Torsion of bladder, 420 

of cornua uteri, 302 

symptoms, 302 

treatment, 302 

Toxascaris limbata, 202 

marginata, 202 
Trachea and bronchial tubes, ani- 
mal parasites in, 42 
definition, 42 
' diagnosis, 43 



Trachea and bronchial tubes, ani- 
mal parasites in, 
etiology, 42 
prevention, 43 
prognosis, 43 
symptoms, 42, 43 
treatment, 43 
diseases of, 34 
examination, 34 
Tracheitis and bronchitis, 34 
acute, 34 

definition, 34 
diagnosis, 37 
etiology, 34, 35, 36 
pathology, 36 
prognosis, 37 
symptoms, 36, 37 
treatment, 37, 38 
chronic, 44 
definition, 44 
diagnosis, 45 
etiology, 44 
pathology, 44 
prognosis, 45 
symptoms, 44, 45 
treatment, 45, 46 
Traumatic lesions of conjunctiva, 
519 
foreign bodies, 519, 520 
symptoms, 520 
treatment, 520 
wounds, 520 

treatment, 520, 521 
Trichiasis, 503 

definition, 503, 504 
prognosis, 504 
symptoms, 504 
treatment, 504 
TrichineUidaj, 209, 210 
diagnosis, 211 

in intestine of birds, 210, 211 
Trichosomum annulatum, 
210 
brevicolle, 211 
collare, 210 
retusum, 210 
tennissimum, 211 
of dog, 210 

Trichuris depressiusculus, 
210 
of rabbit, 210 

Trichurus unguiculatus, 210 
pathology, 211 



INDEX 



669 



Tricliinellidse, prognosis, 211 
symptoms, 211 
treatment, 211 
Trichodectes latus, 474 

subrostratus, 474 
Trichosomum annulatum, 210 
brevicolle, 211 
collare, 210 
contortum, 163 

in stomach of birds, 163 
retusum, 210 
tennissimum, 211 
Trichurus depressiusculus, 210 

unguiculatus, 210 
Trigeminal nerve, paralysis of, 451 
Tuber culomata of eyelids, 511 
Tuberculosis, avian, 616 
avium, 616 
of birds, 616 
definition, 616 
diagnosis, 619 
etiology, 616 
natural infection, 617 
occurrence, 616 
pathogenesis, 616, 617 
pathology, 617, 618 
prevention, 620 
prognosis, 620 
symptoms, 618, 619 
treatment, 620 
• of dogs and cats, 620 
diagnosis, 622 
form, 620 
occurrence, 620 
pathogenesis, 621 
pathology, 621 
prognosis, 622 
symptoms, 621, 622 
treatment, 622 
Tumors of bladder, 423 
prognosis, 423 
treatment, 423 
varieties, 423 
carcinomata, 423 
fibromata, 423 
sarcomata, 423 
of brain, 441, 442 
symptoms, 442 
on conjunctiva, 522 

treatment, 522 
of (!ornea, 538 

treatment, 538 
of ear, 493 



Tumors of eyelids, 506 
varieties, 506 
chalazion, 507 

treatment, 507 
cysts, meibomian, 507 

pilosebaceous, 507 
enlargement of glands of 
Moll, 508 
treatment, 508 
granulomas, 508 
treatment, 508 
lipoma in birds, 508 
treatment, 508 
malignant neoplasms, 508, 
509 
diagnosis, 509 
treatment, 509 
varieties, 509 
, carcinomata, 509 

epitheliomata, 509 
sarcomata, 509 
tuberculomata, 509 
Meibomian cysts, 507 
papillomata, 506 

treatment, 506, 507 
pilosebaceous cysts, 507 

treatment, 508 
sebaceous, in birds, 508 
warts, 506 
of iris, 541 
in kidney, 407 

treatment, 407 
in nasal passages, 29 
benign, 28 
mahgnant, 29 
of mammary glands, 317 
benign, 317 
fibromata, 317 
prognosis, 318 
symptoms, 318 
treatment, 318 
lipoma, 318 
prognosis, 318 
symptoms, 318 
treatment, 318 
malignant, 318 
carcinomata, 318 
prognosis, 318 
symptoms, 318 
treatment, 3 IS 
sarcomata, 318 
diagnosis, 318 
symptoms, 318 



670 



INDEX 



Tumors of mammary glands, ma- 
lignant, sarcomata, treatment, 
318 
on membrana nictitans, 523 
of orbit, 553 
of ovaries, 284 
varieties, 284 
cysts, 284 
diagnosis, 285 
prognosis, 285 
treatment, 285 
other tumor formations, 285 
of penis and prepuce, 268 
varieties, 269, 270 
carcinomata, 269 
epitheliomata, 269 
papillomata, 269 
symptoms, 269 
treatment, 269 
sarcomata, 269 
diagnosis, 269 
symptoms, 269 
treatment, 269 * 
venereal granulomata, 269 
diagnosis, 270 
prognosis, 270 
symptoms,, 269, 270 
treatment, 270 
of prostate gland, 280 
diagnosis, 281 
prognosis, 281 
symptoms, 281 
treatment, 281, 282 
of scrotum and testes, 272 
carcinomata, 273 
fibromata, 272, 273 
retention cysts, 273 
sarcomata, 273 
treatment, 273 
of uterine tubes, 291 
of uterus, 303 

fibromata, 303, 304 
diagnosis, 304 
prognosis, 304 
symptoms, 304 
treatment, 304 
hydrometra, 304 
definition, 304 
diagnosis, 305 
etiology, 304, 305 
prognosis, 305 
symptoms, 305 
treatment, 305 



Tumors of uterus, myomata, 304 
of vulva and vagina, 313 
fibromata, 313 
diagnosis, 313 
prognosis, 313 
treatment, 314 
papiUomata, 314 
treatment, 314 
sarcomata, 314 

treatment, 314 
venereal granulomata, 314 
treatment, 314 
Typhoid, fowl, 584 
Typhus, canine, 579 
of dogs, 579 
course, 582 
definition, 579 
diagnosis, 581, 582 
etiology, 579 
occurrence, 579 
pathology, 579, 580 
prognosis, 582 
symptoms, 580, 581 
treatment, 582, 583 



Ulceration of concha, 488 
etiology, 488 
prognosis, 489 
symptoms, 489 
treatment, 489 
of conjunctiva, 521 

treatment, 521 
of cornea, 532 
of stomach, 157 
definition, 157, 158 
diagnosis, 159 
etiology, 158 
pathology, 158 
prognosis, 159 
symptoms, 158, 159 
treatment, 159 
Ulcerative stomatitis, 96 
Ulcus ventriculi, 157 
Umbilical hernia, 557 
Uncinaria stenocephala, 207 

trigonocephala, 207 
Uremia, 400 
definition, 400 
diagnosis, 401 
etiology, 400 



INDEX 



671 



Uremia, prognosis, 401 
symptoms, 400 
treatment, 401, 402 
Urethra, calculi in, 427 

congenital malformations of, 425 
diseases of, 425 

examination, 425 
inflammation of, 429 
occlusion of, 425 
stricture of, 426 
wounds of, 426 
Urethritis, 429 
symptoms, 429 
treatment, 429 
Urine, incontinence of, in bladder, 
416 
retention of, in bladder, 414 
Urocystitis, 416 
Uterine tubes, cysts of, 291 
diseases of, 291 

examination, 291 
tumors of, 291 
Uterus, diseases of, 292 
examination, 292, 293 
aversion of, 300 
inversion of, 300 
prolapse of, 300 
rupture of, 303 
tumors of, 308 



Vagina, diseases of, 309 
examination, 309 
malformations, congenital, 309 
prolapse of, 311 
rupture of, 313 
tumors of, 313 
and vulva, 309 

congenital malformations of, 
309 
Vaginitis and vulvitis, 309 
definition, 309 
diagnosis, 311 
etiology, 310 
prognosis, 311 
symptoms, 310 
treatment, 311 
Valvular insufficiency and stenosis, 
78 
definition, 78, 79 
insufficiency, 78, 79 



Valvular insuflBciency and stenosis, 
definition, insufficiency, 
imperfect closing of 
valves, 78, 79 
stenosis or contraction of 
openings, 79 
diagnosis, 81 
etiology, 79 
necropsy, 80 
prognosis, 81 
symptoms, 80, 81 
treatment, 81, 82 
Vascular goiter, 341 

keratitis, 528 
Vegetable parasitic disease of skin, 

482 
Venereal granulomata of penis and 
prepuce, 269 
of vulva and vagina, 314 
Ventral hernia, 558 
Vertebrae, fracture of, 370 
Vertebral dislocation, 379 
Vertigo, 455 
definition, 455 
diagnosis, 456 
etiology, 455 
prognosis, 456 
symptoms, 455, 456 
treatment, 456 
Volvulus, 185 
definition, 185 
diagnosis, 185, 186 
etiology, 185 
pathology, 185 
prognosis, 186 
symptoms, 185 
treatment, 186 
Vulva, diseases of, 309 
examination, 309 
tumors of, 313 
Vulvitis, 309 



W 

Warts on eyefids, 506 
Whipworm, 209, 210 
White comb, 484 

diarrhea, 029 
Wounds of articulations, 376 

of bladder, 412 

on conjunctiva, 520 

of cornea, 535 



672 



INDEX 



Wounds of ear, 487, 488 
prognosis, 488 
symptoms, 488 
treatment, 488 
of eyelids, 497, 498 
and injuries of mammary gland 
315 
treatment, 315 
of testes and scrotum, 271 
prognosis, 271 
sjrmptoms, 271 
treatment, 271 



Wounds of intestines, 188 
definition, 188 
etiology, 188 
symptoms, 188, 189 
treatment, 189 
of membrana nictitans, 523 
of penis and prepuce, 263, 264 
prognosis, 264 
symptoms, 264 
treatment, 264, 265 
of urethra, 426 
treatmert, 426 



1 



